Unconventional Machining

Methods
Presented By,
Anoop Pandey,
Assistant Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
1
 Unit 5
Comprehend and classify various nonconventional machining and
welding techniques. (K4)

2
 Introduction
With the rapid growth in development of harder and difficult to machine
metals which are used for special purposes, a need to machine them
effectively started arising.
These methods are referred as unconventional as they do not employ
conventional use of tools for metal cutting, while energy in its direct form is
utilized.

The requirements that lead to the development of

nontraditional machining:

•Very high hardness and strength of the material. (above 400 BHN.)

•The work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding
forces.

•The shape of the part is complex, such as internal and external profiles, or
small dia holes.

•Surface finish or tolerance better than those obtainable conventional

process.
3
S. Process Energy source Transfer Mechanism of Type of
No. Media Metal Removal Energy
1. AJM, Pneumatic/ High Velocity Erosion Mechanical
USM,WJM Hydraulic Particles
Pressure
2. Conventio Cutting tool Physical Shear
nal Contact
Machining
3. ECM, ECG High Current Electrolyte Ion displacement Electrochemic
al

4. CHM Corrosive agent Reactive Ablative Chemical

Environment Reaction

5. IBM Ionized material Hot Gases Fusion Thermoelectri

c

6. EDM High Voltage Electrons Thermal

7. LBM Amplified Light Radiation Vaporization Thermal

8. PAM Ionized Material Ion Stream Thermal

Unconventional Machining 4
 Electro Chemical Machining
Introduction

• Also referred as anodic cutting.

• It employs removal of material from selective areas by using chemicals.
• The process may be considered as the reverse of electro plating with some
modifications.
• Based on principle of electrolysis.
• In an electrolyte conduction of electricity is achieved through the
movement of ions.
• This movement of ions is due to movement of matter.
• This movement of matter causes machining of work piece.
• Work piece is connected to the positive terminal, thus it is referred as
anodic cutting.
• Based on Faraday’s laws of electroplating.
5
Electro Chemical Machining 6
Faraday’s Law:
• The mass of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the quantity of electricity transferred at that
electrode. Quantity of electricity refers to the quantity of electrical charge,
typically measured in coulomb.
• For a given quantity of electricity (electric charge), the mass of an
elemental material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the
element's equivalent weight. The equivalent weight of a substance is its
molar mass divided by an integer that depends on the reaction undergone by
the material
Mathematically:

Where;
• m is the mass of the substance liberated at an electrode
• Q is the total electric charge passed through the substance
• F = 96,485 C mol-1 is the Faraday constant
• M is the molar mass of the substance.
• M / z is the same as the equivalent weight of the substance altered.
Now, Q = It
Thus, m = ItЄ/26.8 7
 Where;
I = Current in amperes
T = time in hours
m = weight in grams
Є = gram equivalent weight of metal.

Working of ECM:
• The potential difference that exist b/w a point on the surface of electrode
and a point adjacent to it in the electrolyte is referred as electrode potential.
• For different electrodes the value of electrode potential varies.
• Potential difference b/w electrodes with reference to electrolyte is termed
as cell emf (electro motive force).

Electrolyte

Workpiece
8

Tool
9
• When external potential difference is applied, electrolyte and water
undergoes ionic dissociation as follows.
Nacl = Na+ + Cl-
H2O = H+ + OH-
• As the potential difference is applied between the work piece (anode) and
the tool (cathode), the positive ions move towards the tool and negative ions
move towards the workpiece.
• Hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and form
hydrogen gas:
2H+ + 2e- = H2 (At Cathode)
• Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) as:
Fe = Fe++ + 2e-
• Iron ions combine with (OH)- hydroxyl ions to form iron oxide.
Fe++ + 2(OH)- = Fe(OH)2
• Sodium ions would combine with chloride (Cl) - ions to form sodium chloride.
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl
• Thus work piece gets gradually machined and gets precipitated as the 10
sludge.
 Anode potential

Anodic overvoltage Activation over potential

ohmic potential
concentration potential

concentration potential
Ohmic drop
activation overpotential cathodic
overpotential
cathodic potential

Total potential drop in ECM

cell
Equipments:
• Power supply
• Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
• Tool feed system
• Working tank

11
Applications:
•ECM technique removes material by atomic level dissolution by
electrochemical action.
•Thus the material removal rate or machining is not dependent on the
mechanical or physical properties of the work material.
•It only depends on the atomic weight and valency of the work material and
the condition that it should be electrically conductive.
•Thus ECM can machine any electrically conductive work material
irrespective of their hardness, strength or even thermal properties.
•As ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface finish is excellent with
almost stress free machined surface and without any thermal damage.
•ECM is used for:
Die sinking Profiling and contouring Trepanning
Grinding Drilling Micro-machining

12
• The portions of the workpiece which do not require machining is covered
with masking sheets.
• The sheet is cut and taken from the area where machining is required.
Templates are used for this purpose.
• If the entire area of the workpiece is to be machined, masking is not
necessary.
• Usually vinyl, neoprene and rubber based materials are used as mask
sheets.
• After masking, the workpiece is submerged in a hot chemical solution. This
solution is called the etchant.
• For Aluminium Caustic soda is used as etchant. Acids are used for steel,
magnesium and titanium alloys.
• The etchant removes the metal from workpiece by chemical action.
• The rate of metal removal is about 0.025mm per minute.
• The rate of metal removal depends upon the concentration and the
temperature of the etchant. 13
Summary of Electro Chemical Machining:
• Mechanism of Material removal: Electrolysis
• Medium: Conducting Electrolyte
• Tool Material Cu, brass, steel.
• MRR/ Tool wear ∞
• Gap: 50 – 300 micro meter
• Maximum MRR 15 * 103 mm3/min
• Specific power consumption: 7 W/mm3/min
• Critical parameters: V,I. feed rate, electrolyte & its conductivity.
• Material applications: All conducting metals and alloys.
• Shape applications: Blind complex cavities, curved surfaces etc.
• Limitations: High specific energy consumption.
Not meant for non conducting materials.

14
 Abrasive Jet Machining
• Material removal takes place due to impingement of fine abrasive particles.
• Stream of fine grained abrasives mixed with air as carrier gas is used.
• When a high velocity abrasive particle impinges on work piece, tiny brittle
fracture is caused.
• Following carrier gas (air) carries away dislodged workpiece particle.
• Process suitable for brittle and fragile type of work materials.

15
• The major parameters controlling the mrr and gemoetry of cut are as
follows:

The Abrasive:
• Materials: aluminum oxide (preferred); silicon carbide
• The grains should have sharp edges
• Material diameters of 10-50 micro m 15-20 is optimal
• Should not be reused as the sharp edges are worn down and smaller
particles can clog nozzle.

The Gas:
• Composition of gas should help increase MRR by allowing high compression
of gas.
• High compression gives high pressure.

The Nozzle:
• Normally made of WC or sapphire.
• Cross section of area is between 0.05 mm2 & 0.2 mm2.

16
Effect of Nozzle tip distance on shape and size of 17
cut
Flowchart for Abrasive
Machining

18
Summary of AJM characteristics
• Mechanics of material removal: brittle fracture by impinging
abrasive grains at high speed
• Media: Air, CO2
• Abrasives: Al2O3, SiC, 0.025mm diameter, 2-
20g/min
• Velocity: 50-300 m/sec
• Pressure: 2 to 10 atm.
• Nozzle WC, sapphire
• Orifice area 0.05-0.2 mm2
• Life: 12-300 hr.
• Nozzle tip distance: 0.25-75 mm
• critical parameters: abrasive flow rate and velocity,
nozzle tip distance from work surface,
abrasive grain size and jet
inclination
• Materials application: hard and brittle metals, alloys, and
nonmetallic materials Specially suitable
for thin sections.
• Shape (job) application: drilling, cutting, deburring,
etching, cleaning
• Limitations: low metal removal rate (40 mg/min, 15
mm3/min), embedding of abrasive in 19
workpiece,
 Water Jet Machining:
• It is manufacturing through the use of highly pressurized liquid, forced
through a nozzle and used as the cutting tool
• When jet of water strikes a target, its complete kinetic energy is virtually
converted into pressure energy.
• Erosion of material from work piece occurs when fluid pressure is more
than the bond strength binding the target material.
• Thus water jet cutting removes material by mechanical action of a high
velocity stream impinging on a small area.

20
Equipments:
Pump or Intensifier:
• Intensifies the pressure of fluid upto 1500 – 4000 MN/m2.

Tubing:
• High pressure tubing used to transport fluid. Tube may be made of SS.

Tube fittings:

Valves:

Tube Fittings:

Nozzles:

21
Applications:
• Paint Removal
• Cleaning
• Cutting soft material.
• Cutting frozen meat.
• Textile, leather industry.
• Mass immunization.
• Surgery
• Peening
• Cutting
• Pocket Milling
• Drilling
• Turning
• Nuclear Plant Dismantling.

22
 Ultrasonic Machining
• Term ultrasonic is referred to describe a vibratory wave having frequency
greater than that of upper frequency limit of human ear.
• An ultrasonic transducer is used to convert electrical energy into ultrasonic
waves.
• Electrical energy is converted into mechanical vibrations.
• Piezoelectric effect in natural or synthetic crystals is used for this.
• Initially was used for finishing operations only.
• Used to erode holes and cavities in hard or brittle work pieces by using high
frequency mechanical motion of shaped tools and an abrasive slurry.
• Effectively machine all hard materials whether they are electrically
conductive or not.
• Ductile and tough material tool is vibrated with a very high frequency and
continuous flow of abrasive slurry.
• Tool is given a gradual feed.
• Mechanism of material removal in USM is still a matter of research.
23
•Reason of material removal in ultrasonic machining is supposed to be:
Hammering of abrasive particles on work surface by the tool.
Impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
Erosion due to cavitation. Chemical action of fluid.

24
Ultrasonic Machining
Process:
• A low-frequency electrical signal is applied to a transducer, which converts
the electrical energy into high-frequency (~20 KHz) mechanical vibration.
• This mechanical energy is transmitted to a horn and tool assembly and
results in a unidirectional vibration of the tool at the ultrasonic frequency
with a known amplitude.
• The standard amplitude of vibration is typically less than 0.002 in.
• The power level for this process is in the range of 50 to 3000 watts.
Pressure is applied to the tool in the form of static load.

• The shape of the tool corresponds to the shape to be produced in the

workpiece.
• The high-speed reciprocations of the tool, drive the abrasive grains across a
small gap against the workpiece.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
• The impact of the abrasive is the energy principally responsible for material
removal in the form of small wear particles that are carried away by the
abrasive slurry.
• The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a much slower25
rate.
Schematic diagram of Ultrasonic Machine
26
Parts of USM 27
Applications of USM:
• Casting and welding of metals.
• Forming of plastics.
• Measurement of velocity of moving fluids.
• Measurement of density, viscosity and elastic constants.
• Measurement of hardness and grain size determination of metals.
• Nondestructive residual stress determination.
• Flaw detection, leak detection.

28
Summary of Ultra Sonic Machining Characteristics:
• Mechanism of Material removal: Brittle fracture caused by
impingement of abrasive grain due to high
frequency vibrating tool.
• Medium: Slurry.
• Abrasives: SiC, Al2O3, B4C, diamond 100 -800 grit size.
• Vibration Frequency: 15 – 30 KHz.
• Vibration Amplitude: 25-100 micro meter
• Tool Material: Soft Steel
• MRR/Tool wear rate: 1.5 for WC workpiece, 100 for glass
workpiece.
• Gap: 25 - 50 micro meter
• Critical parameters: Frequency, amplitude, tool material, grit size,
abrasive material, feed force, slurry
concentration and viscosity.
• Material applications: Metals and alloys, semiconductors,
nonmetals.
• Shape applications: Round and irregular holes, impressions.
• Limitations: Very low MRR, tool wear, depth of holes and
cavities 29
 Friction Welding
• Here one piece is rotated and other is made to rub against it under an axial
load resulting in increased friction, heat generation and joining.
• A thrust force is given at the end of the process to complete the weld.
• The process has been used since 1945 for joining of thermoplastics but it
has been put to use in welding of metals since 1956 from Russia.
• No filler metal, flux or shielding gas is required for the process.
•Joints are similar in appearance to the ones produced by electrical
resistance butt welding. With formation of flash and upset welding.
• Normally cylindrical pieces like roads and tubes are welded by this process
but its application can be extended to situations wherein one of the
component is symmetric and can be rotated conveniently.
• Steels mostly are welded in the temperature zone of 900 – 13000 C through
this process.
• Workpieces may also be rotated in opposite direction when high relative
velocity is needed.

30
31
 Theoretical Considerations
• Chudikov and Vill from Russia are credited with successful application of
friction welding to metals.
• As per law of friction, friction force F is proportional to the normal load L
• F = µL
• Where µ is coefficient of friction that increases with increase in load.
• But according to will frictional force can be expressed by the following
equation
• F = αA + βL
• Where A is the area of contact and α,β are constants.
•For high values of pressure first term is very small and thus
•F = βL
• Where β is nearly equal to µ

32
 Electro Discharge Machine
• Type of thermal metal removal process.
• A desired shape is obtained using electrical discharges (sparks). Based on
erosion of metals by spark discharges.
• EDM system consist of a tool (electrode) and work piece, connected to a dc
power supply and placed in a dielectric fluid.
• When potential difference between tool and work piece is high, a transient
spark discharges through the fluid, removing a small amount of metal from
the work piece surface.
• This process is repeated with capacitor discharge rates of 50-500 kHz.
• Dielectric fluid used are: mineral oils, kerosene, distilled and deionized
water etc.
• Role of the dielectric fluid:
1. acts as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high.
2. acts as a flushing medium and carries away the debris.
3. also acts as a cooling medium.
• Electrodes – usually made of graphite.
• EDM can be used for die cavities, small diameter deep holes, turbine blades
and various intricate shapes. 33
Elements of Electro Discharge
Applications:
Small hole drilling:
• Machining of micro holes and shafts as small as 5 μm in diameter with a
best surface roughness of 0.1 μm R max and of roundness of 0.5 μm and
variety of complex shapes of equivalent accuracy

Metal disintegration machining

• Several manufacturers produce EDM machines for the specific purpose of
removing broken tools (drill bits or taps) from work pieces.

Prototype production

•The EDM process is most widely used by the mould-making tool and die
industries, but is becoming a common method of making prototype and
production parts, especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics
industries

Coinage die making

•For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges by the coinage
(stamping) process
35
Wire Cut EDM
• Cutting method in which an electrically charged wire is fed through a
workpiece creating an electric discharge that cuts a contour in its horizontal
plane.
•From a wire coil [1], a wire [2] is fed via wire guide coils [3] and control
units [4]. In order to resist abrasion, the control units are usually made of
diamond.
•The thread is finally collected by a collection coil [5] or cut into smaller
pieces when consumed.
•Connection via power source causes the wire to act as cathode and the
workpiece as anode.
•When the electrode, in this case the wire, is placed close to the workpiece,
spark discharge occurs, which causes material from both the workpiece and
the wire to be removed.
36
• The discharge is supported by a
dielectric [6], which helps to cool
the process and dispose
decompressed material. The
process can also be completely
immersed in a dielectric.
• The spark gap [7] causes the
machined contour to be slightly
larger than the diameter of the
wire [8]. The contour is usually
controlled by the workpiece
movements in the horizontal
plane. 37
Summary of EDM Characteristics:

• Mechanism of Material removal: Melting & evaporation helped by

cavitation.
• Medium: Dielectric Fluid.
• Tool Material: Cu, brass, Cu-W alloy, Ag-W alloy, alloy
graphite.
• MRR/ Tool wear 0.1 to 10
• Gap: 10 – 25 micro meter
• Maximum MRR 5 * 103 mm3/min
• Specific power consumption: 1.8 W/mm3/min
• Critical parameters: V, Capacitance, spark gap, dielectric
circulation.
• Material applications: All conducting metals and alloys.
• Shape applications: Blind complex cavities, micro holes for
nozzles, through cutting of narrow circular
holes, narrow slots.
• Limitations: High specific energy consumption.
Removal rate is quite low, when forced
circulation of dielectric is not possible.
38
Schematic representation of Electro
Discharge Machining 39
 Laser Beam Machining:
• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
• Laser is an electro magnetic radiation, producing monochromatic light in
form of collimated beam.
• A laser beam is focused on the work piece by a lens to give extremely high
energy density.
• This high energy density is capable of melting and vaporizing any material.
• Low reflectivity and thermal conductivity of the work piece surface, and low
specific heat and latent heat of melting and evaporation, increases process
efficiency.

Principle of LBM:
On providing some energy to an atom, it may absorb external energy and
shoot up to higher energy level.
• If nothing happens to it in excited state then it will radiate energy received
by it after some time.
• If any photon bombards the atom at excited state, then it will emit excess
energy instantaneously. 40
Laser Beam Machining
41
• A Ruby laser has Aluminum as main ingredient in form of Al2O3.
• Chromium is used as impurity in the ratio of 1 to 5000 atoms.
• When Chromium receives any radiation, it absorbs it except red and blue
light photons.
• Subsequently emits various color lights.
• This emission is normal and not instantaneous.
• While in ruby laser, Chromium stops external radiation and after sometime
emit spontaneously all the radiations.
• Thereby generating laser beams.
• These beams are concentrated on work piece via lens.
• Tremendous amount of energy is generated on the work piece, which
causes its melting and evaporation, causing machining.

42
Electron Beam Machining
•A stream of high speed electrons impinges on the work surface whereby KE
is transferred to work.
•This produces tremendous heat capable of vaporizing the work.
•Depending on heat generated work can be machined, welded or annealed.
•Very high velocities obtained using high potentials.
•150,000 V can produce 228478 Km/Sec velocity.
•Power density that can be obtained is of order of 6500 billion W/mm2
•EBM is a very precisely controlled vaporization process.
•Suitable for drilling holes unto 25 -125 microns.
•Here electrons are emitted from the cathode (a hot tungsten filament)
•The beam is shaped by the grid cup and the electrons are accelerated due to
a large potential difference between cathode and anode.
•Beam is focused with the help of electromagnetic lenses.
43
•Deflecting coils are used to control the beam movement in any required
44