Digital Transmission
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by using digital signals. The
conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and scrambling. Line coding
is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.
Topics discussed in this section:
Line Coding
Line Coding Schemes
Block Coding
Scrambling
Line coding and decoding
Signal element versus data element
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the
bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then
Effect of lack of synchronization
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the sender clock. How many
extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000 bps.
At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps.
Line coding schemes
Unipolar NRZ scheme
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
Note
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.
Note
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.
A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are the average signal rate and minimum
bandwidth?
Solution
The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The minimum bandwidth for this average baud
rate is Bmin = S = 500 kHz.
Polar RZ scheme
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
Note
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is
2 times that of NRZ.
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
Note
In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a
m n
pattern of n signal elements in which 2 ≤ L .
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme
Summary of line coding schemes
Note
Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
Block coding concept
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
4B/5B mapping codes
Substitution in 4B/5B block coding
8B/10B block encoding
AMI used with scrambling
Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique
Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique
Note
HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V
depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
We have seen in previous Chapter that a digital signal is superior to an analog signal. The
tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data. In this section we describe two
techniques, pulse code modulation and delta modulation.
Topics discussed in this section:
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Delta Modulation (DM)
Components of PCM encoder
Three different sampling methods for PCM
Note
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for
this signal?
Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the
signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The
sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for
this signal?
Solution
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where the
bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40. What is the minimum number of bits
per sample?
Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as
Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit
rate are calculated as follows:
Components of a PCM decoder
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the analog signal, we need a channel with a
minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need a
channel with a minimum bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.
The process of delta modulation
Delta modulation components
Delta demodulation components
TRANSMISSION MODES
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent
with each clock tick. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three
subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
Topics discussed in this section:
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
Data transmission and modes
Parallel transmission
Serial transmission
Note
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning
and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a
gap between
each byte.
Note
Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.
Asynchronous transmission
Note
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without
start or stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
Synchronous transmission
