Environmental Ethics

• What is it?
• Historical Aspects
• Emergence
• Theories
Definition

• Considers the moral relationship between humans and the

environment, including the ethical treatment of animals, ecosystems,
and natural resources.

• Moral obligation/ responsibility towards environment?

• To future generations
• Sustainability
 Human-Nature Interaction

• Roots can be traced back to philosophical, religious, and cultural traditions that
have shaped how humans interact with nature.

• Eastern Philosophies: In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism, the environment has

been viewed as a sacred entity. These traditions emphasize harmony between
humans and nature, the cyclical nature of life, and non-harm (Ahimsa) toward all
living beings.

• Western Philosophy: In ancient Greece, Aristotle and Plato discussed nature in

relation to human well-being, but nature was often viewed as a resource for
human use.
• Aristotle: Nature has made everything specifically for the sake of man

• Plato, Socrates: humans have reasoning, they are different and superior

• Christianity: it’s God will that human species exploit nature for his
interests

• Kant: Humans have only indirect duty towards animals

Anthropocentrism and Its Role in
Environmental Degradation
• Belief that human beings are the most important or central entity in the
world, and it places humans at the center of all ethical considerations.

• Anthropocentrism: Intrinsic value only to Humans

• Instrumental value versus Intrinsic value

Intrinsic Value vs Instrumental value

• Intrinsic value refers to the idea that something has value "in itself" or
"for its own sake." An entity with intrinsic value is valuable simply by
virtue of its existence, regardless of its utility or benefit to others.

• Instrumental value refers to the value something has because it

serves a purpose, or because it is a means to an end.
• In other words, an entity has instrumental value if it is valuable for
what it can provide or do for someone else, particularly humans.
Industrial Revolution and Rise of Environmental
Concerns (18th - 19th Century)

• The growth of factories, deforestation, urbanization, and widespread pollution

highlighted the detrimental impacts of industrial activities on the environment.

• Conservation Movements: During this period, the roots of the conservation

movement began to take hold.

• Early conservationists, such as John Muir in the U.S., advocated for the
protection of wilderness areas and played a pivotal role in the establishment of
national parks.

• Muir argued that nature had intrinsic value beyond its utility to humans
Post WW-II
• Rapid industrial expansion, urban growth, and environmental
degradation spurred greater awareness of environmental issues.

• The publication of Rachel Carson’s "Silent Spring" (1962) is often

credited with igniting the modern environmental movement.

• Carson’s book exposed the harmful effects of pesticides, particularly

DDT, on ecosystems and human health, leading to a broader
questioning of human impacts on nature.
Lynn White and the Critique of Western
Anthropocentrism
• The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis" (1967)
• Argued that western philosophy has played a major role in promoting an
anthropocentric worldview.

• Van Rensselaer Potter/ "Bioethics: Bridge to the Future" (1971)

• Moral responsibilities humans have toward all forms of life and ecosystems.
• Potter argued that humanity's survival depended on ethical considerations of how we
interact with the natural environment.

• The Population Bomb (Paul R. Ehrlich/ Anne Ehrlich) (1968)

• Rapid population growth would lead to widespread famine, environmental degradation,
and societal collapse unless immediate action was taken to curb population growth.
Theories

• Anthropocentrism
• Non-Anthropocentrism
Biocentrism
Ecocentrism
Anthropocentric view in EE

• Dominated before 1970s

• Human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world, and it tends
to prioritize human interests over those of other species or the environment.

• Why should we protect the environment?

• Any obligation we have towards environment is for the sake of well-being of

humans

• Cruelty to non-human animals is instrumentally wrong rather than intrinsically

wrong
Non-anthropocentrism
• Biocentrism: ethical perspective that considers all living organisms as
having inherent value, has been interpreted and expanded upon by
various philosophers and environmentalists
Biocentric Ideas
• Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965): Reverence for Life

• Paul Taylor (1923-2015): Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental

Ethics (1986).

Humans are members of a community along with all other species, and on equal
terms (biocentric egalitarianism)
“Teleological centres of life“
Purpose or end goal that is inherent in every living being.
Peter Singer: Utilitarianism
• Animal Rights activist

• Singer argued that beings capable of suffering (sentient beings) deserve moral
consideration, which includes most animals.

• Although his focus is more on sentience than life itself, Singer’s ideas have contributed to
broader biocentric discussions.
Tom Regan: Animal Rights and Inherent Value (1938-2017)

Regan’s work, particularly his book The Case for Animal Rights (1983), focuses
on the inherent value of animals. He argues that many animals, especially
mammals, are "subjects-of-a-life" with their own experiences, desires, and needs.

Inherent Rights: Unlike Singer, who focuses on reducing suffering, Regan

believes that animals have intrinsic rights that must be respected, including the
right not to be treated as means to an end. His approach extends beyond
sentience, granting rights to living beings based on their inherent value.
• Biocentrism has been shaped by various thinkers, each bringing unique
perspectives on the value of life and the moral obligations humans have
toward living beings.
• Albert Schweitzer's reverence for life is rooted in compassion for all life
forms.
• Paul Taylor advocates biocentric equality, emphasizing that no species is
superior to another.
• Peter Singer focuses on reducing suffering among sentient beings, while
Tom Regan emphasizes the inherent rights of animals.
Ecocentrism

• Ecocentrism is a philosophical stance in environmental ethics that places intrinsic

value on all living and non-living components of ecosystems

• Emphasizes the interdependence of all elements in nature—plants, animals, land,

water, and the atmosphere—and advocates for preserving ecological integrity as
a whole.
• Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic
• Deep Ecology
• Ecofeminism
• Earth Jurisprudence
Aldo Leopold's Land Ethics

• American Philosopher (1887-1948); A Sand County Almanac

• Radical shift in how humans view their relationship with the environment.
• The Land Ethic expands the boundaries of the moral community to include
not just humans but also soils, waters, plants, and animals.
• Leopold’s ethic is built on the idea that the "health" of the land—understood
as the integrity, stability, and beauty of ecological systems—should be the
primary criterion for evaluating human actions.
• The land is viewed as an interconnected community, and ethical decisions
should respect the well-being of the entire ecosystem rather than prioritizing
short-term human interests.
 Deep Ecology

• Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss in the 1970s

• “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement”
• Advocates for profound changes in how humans interact with nature.
• Deep ecology calls for a fundamental reevaluation of human values

• Advocates for a simpler lifestyle with lower consumption.

• Reducing human population, and protecting ecosystems for their own sake, not just
for the resources they provide to humans.

• Reorient our whole civilization

• Not only technological fixes based on consumption-oriented values
 Shallow Ecology

Næss describes shallow ecology as an environmental approach focused on addressing

specific environmental problems that affect human health and well-being.

Shallow ecology aims to reduce pollution, conserve natural resources, and protect the
environment to ensure human survival and improve quality of life.

However, Næss critiques this approach for being limited and short-sighted.

It treats environmental issues as isolated problems and tends to advocate for solutions
that maintain the status quo rather than challenging the root causes of ecological
degradation.
Ecofeminism

• Links the oppression of women with the exploitation of nature,

suggesting that both arise from patriarchal structures that value
domination and control.

• Ecofeminists argue that the same mindset that justifies the

domination of women, minorities, and marginalized groups also
justifies the exploitation of the environment.

• Social justice and environmental justice are deeply intertwined.

Earth Jurisprudence
• Earth Jurisprudence, a legal and philosophical approach, argues that nature has rights just
as human beings do.

• It draws on ecocentrism by asserting that ecosystems and species have the right to exist,
thrive, and evolve.

• Proponents like Thomas Berry and Cormac Cullinan advocate for legal frameworks that
recognize the rights of nature, similar to how human rights are enshrined in legal systems.

• This concept has been adopted in countries like Ecuador and Bolivia, where legal
provisions have been established to grant rights to rivers, forests, and other natural
entities.
Criticism to Non-anthropocentric
Appraoches
Moral Arbitrariness: Lacks a clear rationale for why all living beings should have moral
status. Critics argue that there’s an arbitrary extension of moral value to all life forms,
whether bacteria, plants, or animals.

Practicality Concerns: In practice, biocentrism can lead to ethical dilemmas when

humans need to prioritize certain life forms over others.

If preserving the biotic community requires significant harm to individual organisms, the
ethic doesn’t clearly outline how to weigh these conflicting values.

Ecofascism Risk: Some critics, warn that the Land Ethics could lead to ecofascism, where
the rights and interests of individual humans are sacrificed for the good of the ecosystem.
• Imagine an island ecosystem where a species of predator is essential for the
ecological balance but regularly preys on an endangered herbivore species. According
to ecosystem-centric ecocentrism, the focus would be on maintaining the predator-
herbivore dynamic, even if it leads to the extinction of the herbivore. Critics argue
that this neglects the moral importance of protecting the herbivore species and
individual lives.

• Consider a situation where a large-scale human agricultural project causes minor

disruptions to an ecosystem. According to Leopold’s Land Ethic, the project would be
morally wrong if it compromises the ecosystem’s integrity. However, critics argue that
this could lead to rejecting projects that provide significant human benefits with
ecological trade-offs, raising the question of whether this ethics provides an adequate
way to balance human interests with ecological concerns.
Sustainability

• Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

• Three pillars of sustainability: environmental protection, economic development, and social

equity.

• The idea of sustainability has roots in environmental concerns that emerged in the 19th and
20th centuries, when people began to recognize the impacts of industrialization on natural
resources and ecosystems.

• However, the modern concept of sustainability, as it's widely understood today, gained
prominence in the late 20th century through efforts to address global environmental and
development challenges.
The Brundtland Report (1987) and Modern
Sustainability

• Prepared by the World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED), which was chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland,
the former Prime Minister of Norway.
Key Points

Interconnectedness of Environmental, Economic, and Social Goals: It stressed that economic

growth, social equity, and environmental protection are mutually dependent and must be
addressed together.

Global Cooperation: The report called for international cooperation to address environmental
issues, such as climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, which transcend national
borders.

Equity and Poverty Alleviation: It highlighted the need for reducing inequality and poverty, as
they contribute to environmental degradation and hinder sustainable development efforts.

Long-term Perspective: The report promoted thinking beyond short-term gains and considering
the long-term impacts of policies and actions on future generations.
Major global environmental initiatives

• 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro: Rio Declaration

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)

• The Kyoto Protocol (1997): first legally binding international treaty to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
• United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): adopted at UN in 2015;
sustainable development by 2030
• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty to lower globa
warming. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference
in Paris, on 12 December 2015.