Digestion

Ms. Kinza Javed Iqbal

Lecturer
National Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Digestion
 Digestion is a physiological process of breaking down large,
insoluble molecules of food into smaller, water-soluble molecules
which can then be readily absorbed by the body
 Mechanical digestion by mastication and swallowing
 Chemical digestion by enzymes
 The process of digestion begins in GI tract or digestive tract
 The digestive system consists of 2 parts: alimentary canal and
glands
 Alimentary canal is a continuous, muscular tube that runs from the
mouth to the anus, facilitating the digestion and absorption of food
 The glands produce and secrete enzymes, hormones, and other
substances necessary for digestion
 Mouth
 Digestion begins in the mouth where food is chewed, and salivary
enzymes start breaking down carbohydrates
 Ingestion - bringing food into the body
• tongue - taste buds detect chemical composition of food
 Mastication - chewing (physical digestion)
• teeth and tongue
 Chemical digestion - saliva
• moistens food
• amylase - breaks down starch into maltose
• lysozyme - antibacterial agent
 Salivary glands
 Salivary glands are essential components of the human
digestive system, playing a crucial role in the initial stages
of food digestion
 Three pairs secrete into oral cavity
1. Parotid salivary glands (below and in front of ears)
2. Submandibular salivary glands (under the jaw)
3. Sublingual salivary glands (under the tongue)
 Saliva
 Saliva is a thick, colorless alkaline liquid , produced by the salivary
glands in the mouth
 On average a human being can create more than 1.5 liters of saliva
per day
• 70 percent by submandibular glands
• 25 percent by parotids
• 5 percent by sublingual glands
 It plays a crucial role in the digestive process and oral health
 Saliva is composed of water, electrolytes, mucus (slime), enzymes
(α-amylase) , and antimicrobial agents
 Functions of Saliva
 The primary functions of saliva include:
1. Digestion: Saliva contains enzymes, such as amylase, which
begins the process of breaking down starches into simpler sugars
This initial digestion takes place in the mouth before food travels
to the stomach.
2. Moistening and Lubrication: Saliva moistens food, making it
easier to chew and swallow
It also helps to lubricate the mouth and throat, facilitating speech
and preventing friction during swallowing
 Functions of Saliva
3. Protection: Saliva has antimicrobial properties that help to
inhibit the growth of bacteria in the mouth
It also neutralizes acids produced by bacteria, contributing to the
prevention of tooth decay and maintaining oral health
4. Taste: Saliva dissolves food particles, allowing them to interact
with taste buds on the tongue and contributing to the sense of taste
5. pH Regulation: Saliva helps maintain a neutral pH in the
mouth, which is important for overall oral health
 Esophagus
 A hollow muscular tube
 About 25 cm (10 in.) long and 2 cm (0.80 in.) wide
 Conveys solid food and liquids in about 3 seconds to the
stomach by peristalsis
 Peristalsis is the rhythmic, wave-like contraction of the muscles
in the walls of the digestive tract. It plays a crucial role in
moving food and liquids through the digestive system, from the
esophagus to the rectum
 Enters abdominal cavity through an opening in the diaphragm
called esophageal hiatus
 Stomach
 The stomach is a muscular organ located in the upper left part
of the abdominal cavity
 J-shaped organ with four main regions
 Shape and size vary from individual to individual and from one
meal to the next, the adult stomach expands to a capacity of 1L
 Stomach typically extends between levels of vertebrae T 7 and L3
 Stomach act as a temporary reservoir for food releasing it
slowly into duodenum
 Stomach
Layers of the Stomach Wall:
1. Mucosa: The innermost layer, which contains glands that
produce gastric juices
2. Submucosa: It contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves
3. Muscularis: This layer consists of smooth muscles that contract
to churn and mix food
4. Serosa: The outermost layer that protects the stomach and
secretes a lubricating fluid
 Regions of Stomach
 Regions of the Stomach
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pylorus
 Functions of Stomach
 Major Functions of the Stomach
1. Storage of ingested food
2. Mechanical breakdown of ingested food
3. Disruption of chemical bonds in food material by acid and
enzymes
4. Production of intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein required for
absorption of vitamin B12 in small intestine
 Glands of Stomach
 The stomach contains various types of glands in its mucosa layer, and these
glands play a crucial role in the secretion of gastric juices, which aid in the
digestive process
 The main types of glands in the stomach include:
Cardiac Glands:
• Located in the cardia region of the stomach, near the opening of the
esophagus
• These glands primarily secrete mucus, which helps protect the
esophagus from the acidic contents of the stomach
Fundic Glands:
• Found in the fundus and body regions of the stomach
• Secrete gastric juice, which consists of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
digestive enzymes, including pepsinogen (converted to pepsin in an
acidic environment)
 Glands of Stomach
Pyloric Glands:
• Located in the pylorus, the lower part of the stomach near the
pyloric sphincter
• These glands primarily secrete mucus and some gastrin, a
hormone that stimulates the production of gastric juices
 Gastric Glands
 Situated in body and fundus of stomach
 These glands play a crucial role in the secretion of gastric
juices, which are essential for the digestion of food
 These glands open into the stomach cavity through gastric pits
 The cells present in the gastric glands are:
• Parietal cells
• Chief cells
 Parietal Cells
 Located in the upper part of the gastric glands, particularly in the
fundic region
 Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), which creates an acidic
environment in the stomach
 Parietal cells also produce intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein
necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine
 Chief Cells
 Found in the lower part of the gastric glands
 Secrete pepsinogen, an inactive precursor to the enzyme pepsin
 Pepsinogen is activated by the acidic environment of the stomach
to become pepsin, which is responsible for the breakdown of
proteins into smaller peptides
 Pepsinogen is converted by HCl in the gastric lumen to pepsin
(active proteolytic enzyme)
 Pyloric Glands
 Pyloric glands are specialized structures found in the pylorus,
which is the lower part of the stomach near the pyloric
sphincter
 These glands contribute to the secretion of gastric juices
 Produce mucous secretion
 Scattered with enteroendocrine cells
• G cells produce gastrin
• D cells release somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits
release of gastrin
 Gastric Juice
 Gastric juice is a clear, colorless acid liquid (pH 1.77)
1. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):
 Secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining
 Maintains a highly acidic pH (1.5–3.5), essential for activating
digestive enzymes
 Helps kill harmful bacteria and pathogens ingested with food

2. Pepsinogen:
 Secreted by chief cells in an inactive form
 Converts to pepsin when exposed to acidic conditions
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller peptides

3. Mucus:
 Produced by mucous cells lining the stomach
 Forms a protective barrier on the stomach lining to prevent
damage from acidic gastric juice and mechanical injury
 Gastric Juice
4. Intrinsic Factor:
 Secreted by parietal cells
 Essential for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine

5. Water and Electrolytes:

 Provide the fluid medium for enzymatic activity
 Maintain electrolyte balance

6. Rennin (Chymosin)
 An enzyme primarily active in infants, secreted by the gastric glands
 Coagulates milk by converting caseinogen (milk protein) into
casein, making it easier to digest
 Important for efficient milk digestion during infancy
 In adults, rennin is replaced by pepsin, which also aids in protein
digestion
 Small Intestine
 The small intestine is a small tube which connects stomach to
the large intestine
 Itis about 6 cm long, 2.5-3 cm in diameter and lies greatly
coiled in the abdomen
 Itbegins from the pylorus and terminates at the junction of
cecum and colon
 Plays key role in digestion and absorption of nutrients
 90 percent of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine
 Divided into three segments: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
 Duodenum
 The first and shortest segment of the small intestine.
 25 cm (10 in.) long
 Receives partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach
through the pyloric sphincter
 Secretions from pancreas and liver (bile) enter duodenum to
aid in digestion
Functions of the duodenum:
• To receive chyme from stomach
• To neutralize acids before they can damage the
absorptive surfaces of the small intestine
 Jejunum
 The middle segment of the small intestine
 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long
 Primary site for the absorption of nutrients such as sugars, amino
acids, and fatty acids
 Contains an extensive network of blood vessels and capillaries to
transport absorbed nutrients to the liver (via the portal vein) for
processing
 Ileum
 The final segment of small intestine
 3.5 meters (11.48 ft) long
 Ends at the ileocecal valve (a sphincter that controls flow of
material from the ileum into the cecum of the large intestine)
 Further absorption of nutrients occurs in the ileum, especially
vitamin B12, bile salts, and any remaining nutrients not absorbed
in the jejunum
 Villi
 The small intestine is covered inside tiny hair like projection
called villi
 They give the intestinal lining a velvety texture and concerned
with the absorption of food
 Columnar epithelial cells are found in the intestinal crypts (also
known as crypts of Lieberkühn), which lie between the villi on
the inner surface of the small intestine
 Intestinal Glands
 Intestinal glands, also known as crypts of Lieberkühn, are
microscopic structures located in the lining of the small intestine
 These glands play a crucial role in the digestive process and the
absorption of nutrients
• Enterocytes: These are absorptive cells that line the surface of
the villi and are responsible for absorbing nutrients, such as
sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids
• Goblet Cells: Goblet cells secrete mucus, which helps lubricate
the intestinal lining and protect it from the abrasive action of food
particles and digestive enzymes
• Enteroendocrine Cells: These cells secrete hormones such as
gastrin, cholecystokinin, and secretin that play a role in regulating
various digestive processes
• Paneth Cells: Predominantly found in the base of the intestinal
glands, Paneth cells secrete antimicrobial substances, such as
lysozyme, to help protect the small intestine from harmful
bacteria
 Bile
 Liver produce bile, a fluid that aids in the digestion and
absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins
 Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small
intestine when needed
 Liver cells secrete about 1 litre bile per day
 It is bitter alkaline greenish-yellow viscid fluid and contains
cholesterol, water, mucin, lecithin, bile salts and pigments
 The most abundant bile acids in the human body are cholic and
deoxycholic acid that are formed from cholesterol
 Bile acids facilitate the digestion of fats and aids in absorption of
fats, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins (D and K)
 Pancreatic Juice
 Pancreatic juice is a colorless alkaline liquid composed of water,
salts and enzymes
 The bicarbonate in pancreatic juice helps neutralize the acidic
chyme, creating a more suitable pH for the enzymes in the small
intestine to function effectively
 The principal pancreatic enzymes are:
• Trypsin
• Chymotrypsin
• Carboxypeptidase
• Pancreatopeptidase
• Amylase
• Lipase
 Pancreatic Enzymes
• Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates (starches) into smaller
sugars like maltose and glucose
• Lipase: Digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol
• Trypsin: act on the bonds where carboxyl group is provided
by arginine and lysine residues and changes protein into
peptones and amino acids
• Chymotrypsin: It attacks only those peptide bonds where
carboxyl group is contributed by tyrosine, phenylalanine,
tryptophan, and methionine and changes protein into peptides
and amino acids
• Carboxypeptidase: This enzyme hydrolyses peptide bond at
C-terminal of peptide to amino acids
 Intestinal Juices
 Intestinal juices refer to the fluid secreted by various glands
and cells in the intestines to aid in the digestion and
absorption of nutrients
 These juices contain enzymes, mucus, and electrolytes that
play key roles in breaking down food, neutralizing stomach
acid, and protecting the intestinal lining
 The Large Intestine
 Is horseshoe shaped
 Extends from end of ileum to anus
 Lies inferior to stomach and liver
 Also called large bowel
 Is about 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long and 6 cm in diameter and lies
in lower abdomen
 Less than 10 percent of nutrient absorption occurs in large
intestine
 Prepares fecal material for ejection from the body
 The Large Intestine

 Parts of the Large Intestine

1. Cecum
The pouch like first portion

2. Colon
The largest portion

3. Rectum
The last 15 cm (6 in.) of digestive tract

Cecum: The cecum is a pouch-like structure located at the

beginning of the large intestine, where it connects to the small
intestine through the ileocecal valve
Appendix: The appendix, a small finger-like projection, about 9 cm
(3.6 in.) long is attached to the cecum, also called vermiform
appendix
Colon: Has a larger diameter and thinner wall than small intestine
The wall of the colon forms a series of pouches (haustra)
Rectum: The rectum is the final portion of the large intestine,
located between the sigmoid colon and the anus
It stores feces until they are expelled from the body during
defecation
Anus: Also called anal orifice
The anus is the external opening at the end of the digestive tract
through which feces are expelled from the body
It is surrounded by muscles known as the anal sphincters, which
help control the passage of feces
 Microbial Population in Large
Intestine
 The large intestine has enormous microbial population exceeding
100 billion bacteria per gram of faeces
 The microbial population of large intestine is composed of
anaerobes of genera Lactobacillus, E.coli, Enterobacter, and
Proteus are also permanent residents
 Vitamins Produced in the Large
Intestine
 Three Vitamins Produced in the Large Intestine
1. Vitamin K (fat soluble)
Required by liver for synthesizing for clotting factors,
including prothrombin
2. Biotin (water soluble)
Important in glucose metabolism
3. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) (water soluble)
Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and some
neurotransmitters