Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 9
The Cell Cycle and
Cellular
Reproduction
Lecture Outline
See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides
for all figures and tables pre-inserted into
PowerPoint without notes.

1
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Outline
• 9.1 The Cell Cycle
• 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• 9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• 9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division

2
 9.1 The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is an orderly set of stages
from the first division to the time the
resulting daughter cells divide
• Just prior to the next division:
 The cell grows larger
 The number of organelles doubles
 The DNA is replicated
• The two major stages of the cell cycle:
 Interphase (includes several stages)
 Mitotic Stage (includes mitosis and cytokinesis)

3
 The Cell Cycle

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Interphase
S
G1 checkpoint
(growth and DNA
Cell cycle main checkpoint. G1 replication) G2 checkpoint
If DNA is damaged, apoptosis G2
will occur. Otherwise, the cell G1 Mitosis checkpoint.
(growth and final Mitosis will occur
is committed to divide when G0 (growth) preparations for G
growth signals are present M 2 if DNA has
s division)
si replicated properly.

e
and nutrients are available.

ase
ne

as
se
e

se
i as Apoptosis will

h
ok

ha
h

op
Anapha
t

Metaph
op occur if the DNA is
Cy

op

pr
Pr
damaged and

te
Tel

La
cannot be repaired.
M

M checkpoint
Spindle assembly
checkpoint. Mitosis
will not continue if
chromosomes are
not properly aligned.

4
 The Cell Cycle
• Interphase
 Most of the cell cycle is spent in
interphase
 Cell performs its usual functions
 Time spent in interphase varies by cell
type
 Nerve and muscle cells do not complete
the cell cycle (remain in the G0 stage)

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 The Cell Cycle
• Interphase consists of: G1, S, and G2 phases
 G1 Phase:
• Recovery from previous division
• Cell doubles its organelles
• Cell grows in size
• Cell accumulates raw materials for DNA synthesis
 S Phase:
• DNA replication
• Proteins associated with DNA are synthesized
• Chromosomes enter with 1 chromatid each
• Chromosomes leave with 2 identical chromatids (sister
chromatids) each
 G2 Phase:
• Between DNA replication and onset of mitosis
• Cell synthesizes proteins necessary for division

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 The Cell Cycle
• M (Mitotic) Stage
 Includes:
• Mitosis
– Nuclear division
– Daughter chromosomes are distributed by the mitotic
spindle to two daughter nuclei
• Cytokinesis
– Division of the cytoplasm
 Results in two genetically identical daughter
cells

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 The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is controlled by internal and
external signals
• A signal is a molecule that either stimulates or
inhibits a metabolic event.
 Internal signals
• Family of proteins called cyclins that increase and
decrease as the cell cycle continues
• Without cyclins, the cell cycle stops at G1, M or G2
(checkpoints)
• Allows time for any damage to be repaired

8
 The Cell Cycle
• Apoptosis is programmed cell death
• It involves a sequence of cellular events:
 fragmenting of the nucleus,
 blistering of the plasma membrane
 engulfing of cell fragments.
• Apoptosis is caused by enzymes called
caspases.
• Mitosis and apoptosis are opposing forces
 Mitosis increases cell number
 Apoptosis decreases cell number

9
 Apoptosis

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
apoptotic cell
blebs
DNA
fragment

Cell rounds Chromatin Plasma membrane Cell fragments

up, and nucleus condenses, and blisters, and blebs contain DNA cell
collapses. nucleus fragments. form. fragments. fragment

Courtesy Douglas R. Green/LaJolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology

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 The Cell Cycle
• Apoptosis
 Cells harbor caspases that are kept in
check by inhibitors
• Can be unleashed by internal or external
signals
 Signal protein p53
• Stops the cell cycle at G1 when DNA is
damaged
• Initiates an attempt at DNA repair
– If successful, the cycle continues to
mitosis
– If not, apoptosis is initiated
11
 Regulation at the G1
Checkpoint
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

CDK CDK present

not present E2F binds to DNA.
P
P

RB E2F RB E2F E2F

protein protein
DNA
released
E2F not released phosphorylated RB E2F cell cycle
proteins

a.

no DNA
damage breakdown
of p53
p53 p53 binds to DNA.
DNA
damage P P P

P DNA DNA
phosphorylated p53
DNA repair apoptosis
proteins
b.

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 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• DNA is in very long threads
 Chromosomes
 Stretched out and intertwined between divisions
 DNA is associated with histones (proteins)
 DNA and histone proteins are collectively called
chromatin
• Before mitosis begins:
 Chromatin condenses (coils) into distinctly
visible chromosomes
 Each species has a characteristic
chromosome number
13
Diploid Chromosome Numbers of
Some Eukaryotes

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• The diploid (2n) number includes two sets
of chromosomes of each type
 Humans have 23 different types of
chromosomes
• Each type is represented twice in each body cell
(diploid)
• Only sperm and eggs have one of each type
·termed haploid (n)
 The haploid (n) number for humans is 23
• Two representatives of each chromosome type
• Makes a total of 2n = 46 in each nucleus
– One set of 23 from individual’s father (paternal)
– Other set of 23 from individual’s mother (maternal)
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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• At the end of S phase:
 Each chromosome internally duplicated
 Consists of two identical DNA chains
• Sister chromatids (two strands of genetically identical
chromosomes)
• Attached together at a single point (called centromere)
• During mitosis:
 Centromeres holding sister chromatids together
separate
 Sister chromatids separate
 Each becomes a daughter chromosome
 Sisters of each type are distributed to opposite
daughter nuclei
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Duplicated Chromosomes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

sister chromatids

centromere

kinetochore

one chromatid
a. 9,850 b.
© Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Just outside the nucleus is the centrosome
 This is the microtubule organizing center in animal
cells
 Organizes the mitotic spindle
• Contains many fibers
• Each fiber is composed of a bundle of microtubules
 In animals, the centrosome contains two barrel-
shaped centrioles
• Oriented at right angles to each other within the centrosome
• Each has 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a cylinder
• Centrosome was also replicated in S-phase, so
there are two centrosomes before mitosis begins

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Phases of Mitosis:
 Prophase
• Chromatin has condensed
– Chromosomes are distinguishable with microscope
– Each chromosome has two sister chromatids attached at
the centromere
• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear envelope disintegrates
• Spindle begins to assemble
• The two centrosomes move away from each other
• Microtubules form star-like arrays termed asters
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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Phases of Mitosis
 Prometaphase
• The centromere of each chromosome
develops two kinetochores
– Specialized protein complex
– One attached to each sister chromatid
» Physically connect sister chromatids with specialized
microtubules (kinetochores)
» These connect sister chromatids to opposite poles of
the mother cell

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Stages of Mitosis
 Metaphase
• Chromosomes are pulled around by kinetochore fibers
• Forced to align across the equatorial plane of the cell
– Metaphase plate - Represents plane through which
mother cell will be divided
 Anaphase
• Centromere dissolves, releasing sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids separate
– Now called daughter chromosomes
– Pulled to opposite poles along kinetochore fibers

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Stages of Mitosis
 Telophase
• Spindle disappears
• Now two clusters of daughter chromosomes
– Still two of each type with all types represented
– Clusters are incipient daughter nuclei

• Nuclear envelopes form around the two

incipient daughter nuclei
– Each daughter nucleus receives one chromosome of
each type
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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm
• Allocates the mother cell’s cytoplasm equally to
daughter nucleus
• Encloses each daughter cell in its own plasma
membrane
• Often begins in anaphase
• Animal cytokinesis:
 A cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei
 Formed by a contractile ring of actin filaments
 Like pulling on a drawstring
 Eventually pinches the mother cell in two

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis in plant cells begins with the formation of a
cell plate
 Rigid cell walls outside plasma membrane do not
permit furrowing
 Many small membrane-bounded vesicles
 Eventually fuse into one thin vesicle extending across
the mother cell
 The membranes of the cell plate become the plasma
membrane between the daughter cells
 The space between the daughter cells becomes filled
with the middle lamella
 Daughter cells later secrete primary cell walls on
opposite sides of the middle lamella

24
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

X 4,000
Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring

X 4,000

25
(top): © Thomas Deerinck/Visuals Unlimited; (bottom): © SPL/Getty RF
 Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
daughter cells

cell plate formation

daughter nucleus

vesicles containing
nucleoli membrane components
fusing to form cell plate

daughter
nucleus

(left): © B.A. Palevitz and E.H. Newcomb/BPS/Tom Stack & Associates

26
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and
Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell aster 20 µm duplicated 20 µm spindle chromosomes at 20µm

9 µm 20µm daughter chromosome cleavage furrow 16µm
at Interphase chromosome pole metaphase plate

nuclear
centromere
envelope kinetochore
fragments nucleolus
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses

nucleolus kinetochore
disappears spindle spindle fiber kinetochore
fibers forming spindle fiber
polar spindle fiber Metaphase Telophase
Early Prophase Prophase Prophase Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes Anaphase Daughter cells are forming
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and Nucleolus has disappeared, and are aligned at the metaphase plate (center Sister chromatids part and become daughter
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible. duplicated chromosomes are visible. of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle chromosomes that move toward the spindle
as nuclear envelopes and
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart, Centrosomes begin moving apart, fibers attached to the sister chromatids poles. In this way, each pole receives the same nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will
centrosome envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. and spindle is in process of forming. come from opposite spindle poles. number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell. become indistinct chromatin.
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase spindle pole lacks
25µm 6.2µm 20µm 6.2µm
cell wall chromosomes centrioles and aster spindle fibers 6.2µm cell plate 6.6µm

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; Plant cell(Telophase): © Jack M.
Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited;

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Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20 µm
aster

nuclear
envelope
fragments Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses Chromatin is condensing into
nucleolus
disappears
chromosomes, and the nuclear
Early Prophase envelope is fragmenting.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25 µm

Animal cell(Early prophase): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Early prophase): © Ed Reschke

Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20 µm duplicated 20 µm
aster
chromosome
nuclear
envelope Prophase
centromere
fragments
Nucleolus has disappeared, and
MITOSIS

chromatin
duplicated chromosomes are
condenses
nucleolus visible. Centrosomes begin moving
disappears
spindle
fibers forming apart, and spindle is in process
Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
Prophase
of forming.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope is fragmenting.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25 µm 6.2 µm
cell wall chromosomes

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Early prophase): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20 µm duplicated 20 µm spindle 9 µm
aster
chromosome pole
nuclear kinetochore
envelope centromere
Prometaphase
fragments
The kinetochore of each
MITOSIS

chromatin
chromatid is attached to a
condenses
nucleolus kinetochore spindle fiber. Polar
disappears kinetochore
spindle spindle fiber
fibers forming
polar spindle fiber
spindle fibers stretch from each
Prometaphase
Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
Prophase
Nucleolus has disappeared, and
spindle pole and overlap.
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible.
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart,
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase 25 µm 6.2 µm 20 µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle pole lacks
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Metaphase
Animal Cell
at Interphase aster
20 µm duplicated
chromosome
20 µm spindle
pole
9 µm chromosomes at
metaphase plate
20 µm Centromeres of duplicated
nuclear kinetochore
envelope centromere chromosomes are aligned at the
fragments

metaphase plate (center of fully

MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
formed spindle). Kinetochore
kinetochore
nucleolus
disappears
spindle
kinetochore
spindle fiber
spindle fiber
spindle fibers attached to the
fibers forming
polar spindle fiber
Early Prophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase
sister chromatids come from
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
duplicated chromosomes are visible.
Centrosomes begin moving apart,
attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber.
Polar spindle fibers stretch from each
opposite spindle poles.
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25 µm 6.2 µm spindle pole lacks 20 µm 6.2 µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle fibers
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20 µm duplicated 20 µm spindle 9 µm chromosomes at 20 µm 20 µm
Anaphase
aster daughter chromosome
chromosome pole metaphase plate
nuclear kinetochore Sister chromatids part and become
envelope
centromere
fragments
daughter chromosomes that move
toward the spindle poles. In this
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
nucleolus
way, each pole receives the same
disappears kinetochore
spindle
fibers forming
spindle fiber kinetochore number and kinds of chromosomes
spindle fiber
polar spindle fiber
Early Prophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase
Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes
Anaphase as the parent cell.
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible. attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber. are aligned at the metaphase plate (center
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart, Polar spindle fibers stretch from each of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap. fibers attached to the sister chromatids
come from opposite spindle poles.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25 µm 6.2 µm spindle pole lacks 20 µm 6.2 µm 6.2 µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle fibers
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
20 µm duplicated 20 µm spindle 9 µm chromosomes at 20 µm 20 µm 16 µm
at Interphase aster daughter chromosome cleavage furrow
chromosome pole metaphase plate
nuclear
envelope
kinetochore Telophase
centromere nucleolus
fragments
Daughter cells are forming
MITOSIS

chromatin as nuclear envelopes and

condenses
nucleolus
disappears spindle
kinetochore
spindle fiber kinetochore
nucleoli reappear.
fibers forming spindle fiber
polar spindle fiber
Early Prophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Chromosomes will
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes Sister chromatids part and become daughter
are aligned at the metaphase plate (center chromosomes that move toward the spindle
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
duplicated chromosomes are visible.
Centrosomes begin moving apart,
attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber.
Polar spindle fibers stretch from each of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle poles. In this way, each pole receives the same become indistinct chromatin.
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap. fibers attached to the sister chromatids number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell.
come from opposite spindle poles.
centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase 25 µm 6.2 µm 20 µm 6.2 µm 6.2 µm 6.6 µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle pole lacks spindle fibers cell plate
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse):
© Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; Plant cell(Telophase): © Jack M. Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited;
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal
and Plant Cells
• Functions of mitosis:
 Permits growth and repair.
 In flowering plants, meristematic tissue
retains the ability to divide throughout the
life of the plant
 In mammals, mitosis is necessary when:
• A fertilized egg becomes an embryo
• An embryo becomes a fetus
• A cut heals or a broken bone mends

34
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal
and Plant Cells
• Stem Cells
 Many mammalian organs contain stem cells
• Retain the ability to divide
• Red bone marrow stem cells divide to produce various
types of blood cells
 Therapeutic cloning to produce human tissues
can begin with either adult stem cells or embryonic
stem cells
 Embryonic stem cells can be used for reproductive
cloning, the production of a new individual

35
 Reproductive and Therapeutic
Cloning
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

remove and
discard egg
egg nucleus

remove Implant
fuse egg embryo
Go nucleus
with Go into
Go cells from nucleus culture surrogate
animal to be mother
cloned embryonic
stem cells Clone is born
a. Reproductive cloning remove and
discard egg
egg nucleus
nervous

remove
fuse egg
Go nucleus
with Go blood
Go somatic cells nucleus culture

embryonic
stem cells muscle
b. Therapeutic cloning

36
9.3 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Abnormal growth of cells is called a tumor
 Benign tumors are not cancerous
• Encapsulated
• Do not invade neighboring tissue or spread
 Malignant tumors are cancerous
• Not encapsulated
• Readily invade neighboring tissues
• May also detach and lodge in distant places (metastasis)
• Results from mutation of genes regulating the cell cycle
• Development of cancer
 Tends to be gradual
 May take years before a cell is obviously cancerous

37
 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Characteristics of Cancer Cells
 Lack differentiation
• Are non-specialized
• Are immortal (can enter cell cycle repeatedly)
 Have abnormal nuclei
• May be enlarged
• May have abnormal number of chromosomes
• Often have extra copies of genes
 Do not undergo apoptosis
• Normally, cells with damaged DNA undergo apoptosis
• The immune system can also recognize abnormal cells and
trigger apoptosis
• Cancer cells are abnormal but fail to undergo apoptosis

38
 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Characteristics of Cancer Cells
 Form tumors
• Mitosis is normally controlled by contact with
neighboring cells – contact inhibition
• Cancer cells have lost contact inhibition
 Undergo metastasis
• Original tumor easily fragments
• New tumors appear in other organs
 Undergo angiogenesis
• Formation of new blood vessels
– Brings nutrients and oxygen to the tumor
39
Progression of Cancer
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

New mutations arise, and one cell (brown) has the ability to start a tumor.

primary tumor

lymphatic blood
vessel vessel

Cancer in situ. The tumor is at its place of origin. One cell (purple)
mutates further.

lymphatic blood
vessel vessel

Cancer cells now have the ability to invade lymphatic and blood vessels
and travel throughout the body.

New metastatic tumors are found some distance from the primary tumor.

40
Cancer Cells vs. Normal Cells

41
 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Origin of Cancer
 Oncogenes
• Proto-oncogenes promote the cell cycle in
various ways
• If a proto-oncogene is mutated, it may become an
oncogene
 Tumor suppressor genes inhibit the cell
cycle in various ways
• If a tumor suppressor gene becomes inactive, it
may promote cancer development
 Both proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor
genes are normally regulated in coordination
with organism’s growth plan
42
 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Origin of Cancer
 Chromosomes normally have special material
at each end called telomeres
 These get shorter each cell division
 When they get very short, the cell will no
longer divide
 Telomerase is an enzyme that maintains the
length of telomeres
 Mutations in telomerase gene:
• Cause telomeres to continue to lengthen, which
• Allows cancer cells to continually divide

43
Causes of
Cancer
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Heredity Radiation
sources

growth
factor
growth factor Viruses
receptor Activates signaling Pesticides
protein proteins in a stimulatory and oncogene
pathway that extends herbicides
to the nucleus.

P
a. Influences that cause mutated proto-oncogenes
P
(called oncogenes) and mutated tumor
suppressor genes

activated
P signaling
protein
signaling
Stimulatory
protein
pathway gene product
phosphate
promotes
b. Effect of growth factor cell cycle

Inhibitory gene product

pathway inhibits
cell cycle

proto-oncogene
Codes for a growth factor,
a receptor protein, or a
signaling protein in a
stimulatory pathway.
If a proto-oncogene
becomes an oncogene,
the end result can be
active cell division.

c. Stimulatory pathway and

inhibitory pathway

tumor suppressor gene

Codes for a signaling
protein in an inhibitory
pathway. If a tumor
suppressor gene mutates,
the end result can be
active cell division.
d. Cancerous skin cell 1,100X

d: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

44
 9.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division
• The prokaryotic chromosome is a ring of DNA
 Folded up in an area called the nucleoid
 1,000 X the length of cell
 Replicated into two rings prior to cell division
 Replicated rings attach to the plasma membrane
• Binary fission
 Splitting in two
 Two replicate chromosomes are distributed to two
daughter cells
 Produces two daughter cells identical to original cell –
asexual reproduction

45
 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
1. Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane

cytoplasm

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

46
 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
1. Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane

cytoplasm

2. The cell is preparing for binary

fission by enlarging its cell wall,
plasma membrane, and overall
volume.

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

47
 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
1. Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane

cytoplasm

2. The cell is preparing for binary

fission by enlarging its cell wall,
plasma membrane, and overall
volume.

3. DNA replication has produced

two identical chromosomes.
Cell wall and plasma membrane
begin to grow inward.

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

48
 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
1. Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane

cytoplasm

2. The cell is preparing for binary

fission by enlarging its cell wall,
plasma membrane, and overall
volume.

3. DNA replication has produced

two identical chromosomes.
Cell wall and plasma membrane
begin to grow inward.

4. As the cell elongates, the

chromosomes are pulled apart.
Cytoplasm is being distributed
evenly.

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

49
 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
1. Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane

cytoplasm

2. The cell is preparing for binary

fission by enlarging its cell wall,
plasma membrane, and overall
volume.

3. DNA replication has produced

two identical chromosomes.
Cell wall and plasma membrane
begin to grow inward.

4. As the cell elongates, the

chromosomes are pulled apart.
Cytoplasm is being distributed
evenly.

5. New cell wall and plasma

membrane has divided the
daughter cells.

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

50
Functions of Cell Division

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