India-Pakistan

India’s relationship with Pakistan has been one of the most complex, volatile, and consequential
foreign policy challenges since both countries gained independence in 1947. Their shared
history, territorial disputes, and divergent national identities have led to several wars, persistent
hostilities, and a lack of trust. Below is an elaboration on India’s relationship with Pakistan in
terms of foreign policy and international relations, tracing the evolution from their beginnings to
the present.
Origins and Partition (1947)
The relationship between India and Pakistan began with the traumatic event of Partition in
1947, when British India was divided into two sovereign states—India and Pakistan. Partition
was accompanied by mass migration, religious violence, and deep-seated animosities between
Hindus and Muslims, which have had a lasting impact on the two nations' relationship.
•Territorial Disputes: The most significant territorial dispute that emerged immediately after
Partition was over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which was predominantly Muslim
but whose ruler acceded to India. This led to the First Indo-Pak War (1947-1948), which ended
in a UN-mediated ceasefire. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was divided between the two
countries, with a ceasefire line (later the Line of Control or LOC) becoming the de facto border.
•Foundational Policy of Hostility: Pakistan's creation was based on the two-nation theory, which
argued that Muslims and Hindus were distinct nations, leading to a foundational ideological
opposition between India (a secular state with a large Muslim minority) and Pakistan (an Islamic
republic). This ideological divide has shaped much of the tension between the two countries.
Early Conflicts and Diplomatic
Efforts (1950s-1960s)
•Kashmir Dispute: Kashmir remained at the heart of India-Pakistan relations in the early years.
Diplomatic attempts were made to resolve the dispute through UN resolutions calling for a plebiscite,
but these were never fully implemented due to disagreements over conditions. India maintained that
the Instrument of Accession signed by the Maharaja of Kashmir in 1947 made Kashmir an integral
part of India, while Pakistan continued to demand a plebiscite.
•Wars of 1965 and 1971: The first major military confrontation after 1948 occurred in 1965. Pakistan,
emboldened by its military alliance with the United States (through SEATO and CENTO), launched a
military campaign in Kashmir, leading to the Second Indo-Pak War. It ended in a stalemate with the
Tashkent Agreement mediated by the Soviet Union in 1966.
However, the biggest break in India-Pakistan relations occurred during the 1971 Bangladesh
Liberation War. East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) sought independence from Pakistan, and India
intervened in support of the Bengali independence movement. This led to the Third Indo-Pak War in
December 1971, resulting in a decisive Indian victory, the creation of Bangladesh, and the surrender
of 90,000 Pakistani soldiers. The war severely damaged Pakistan’s morale and its relations with
India, creating deep animosity in the decades that followed.
The Simla Agreement and
Bilateralism (1972-1980s)
•Simla Agreement (1972): After the 1971 war, India and Pakistan signed the Simla Agreement, which
aimed to resolve disputes bilaterally rather than through third-party mediation. The agreement
emphasized peaceful resolution of disputes, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, and respect
for the Line of Control in Kashmir. It also committed both sides to bilateral negotiations rather than
seeking external mediation, an approach that India has consistently favored in its diplomatic dealings with
Pakistan.
•Cold War Alignments: During the 1970s and 1980s, India and Pakistan were aligned with opposing
blocs during the Cold War. India maintained its non-alignment policy but leaned toward the Soviet
Union, while Pakistan deepened its ties with the United States, particularly after the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan in 1979. Pakistan became a frontline state in the US-led effort to support Afghan mujahideen
fighters, while India maintained strategic relations with the USSR.
•Nuclear Programmes: Both countries pursued nuclear programs during this period, further exacerbating
tensions. India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 under Operation Smiling Buddha, which prompted
Pakistan to accelerate its own nuclear weapons program.
Nuclearization and Post-Cold
War Relations (1990s)
•Nuclear Rivalry: The 1990s marked a new phase in India-Pakistan relations, as both countries declared
themselves nuclear powers. India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, followed shortly by
Pakistan’s own tests. The nuclearization of both countries significantly raised the stakes of their rivalry,
with the threat of nuclear conflict becoming a major concern for the international community.
•Kargil War (1999): The Kargil Conflict occurred soon after the two countries became nuclear powers.
Pakistani soldiers and militants infiltrated the Kargil sector in Indian-administered Kashmir, leading to
intense fighting. India launched a counteroffensive to reclaim the territory, and international pressure,
particularly from the United States, led Pakistan to withdraw. The conflict demonstrated the dangers of
military escalation between two nuclear-armed states.
•Lahore Declaration (1999): Despite the Kargil conflict, there was an attempt at peace earlier in 1999
when Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee made a historic bus journey to Lahore, Pakistan, and
signed the Lahore Declaration with Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. The declaration aimed at
improving relations, resolving disputes peacefully, and establishing confidence-building measures,
especially regarding nuclear arsenals. However, the Kargil conflict undermined the gains of this initiative.
Post-9/11 Era and the War on
Terror (2000s)
•Terrorism and Cross-border Infiltration: The 2000s saw an intensification of hostilities, particularly
due to the issue of cross-border terrorism. India consistently accused Pakistan of supporting terrorist
groups that were active in Indian-administered Kashmir, including groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and
Jaish-e-Mohammed. The 2001 Indian Parliament Attack and the 2008 Mumbai attacks (carried out by
Pakistan-based terrorists) brought the countries to the brink of war, with India considering punitive military
action against Pakistan.
•Peace Process (Composite Dialogue): Despite these tensions, India and Pakistan engaged in various
rounds of talks, known as the Composite Dialogue Process, aimed at resolving disputes, building trust,
and cooperating on trade, water sharing, and cultural exchanges. However, the dialogue has often been
derailed by incidents of violence or terrorism.
•US Influence: The post-9/11 global scenario saw Pakistan becoming a key ally of the United States in
the War on Terror. This complicated India-Pakistan relations, as India accused Pakistan of maintaining a
double standard—supporting the US fight against terrorism in Afghanistan while allegedly fostering
terrorism against India.
Contemporary Relations (2010s–
Present)
•Narendra Modi’s Diplomacy: Under Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India has adopted a more
assertive stance towards Pakistan. Initially, Modi made overtures for peace, inviting Pakistani Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif to his inauguration in 2014. However, subsequent terrorist attacks, such as the 2016 Uri
attack, led to a significant downturn in relations. India retaliated with surgical strikes against terrorist
launch pads across the Line of Control, signaling a new willingness to use military force in response to
terrorism.
•Pulwama and Balakot (2019): The 2019 Pulwama attack in Kashmir, where over 40 Indian soldiers were
killed, further escalated tensions. India responded with an airstrike on a terrorist camp in Balakot, Pakistan,
marking the first time since 1971 that Indian warplanes crossed into Pakistani territory. Pakistan responded
with its own strikes, and the two countries came close to a full-scale military confrontation. However,
international mediation, particularly by the United States and other powers, helped de-escalate the situation.
•Article 370 and Kashmir: Another major flashpoint in recent years has been India’s decision to revoke the
special status of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 in August 2019. Pakistan vehemently opposed the
move, accusing India of unilaterally altering the status of a disputed territory. Pakistan downgraded
diplomatic ties, suspended trade, and attempted to raise the issue in international forums, including the
United Nations.