Fundamental Of

Computers
by Mr. Vitthal Kawade
Vision Paramedical
College
 Unit-I
• Introduction to Computers
• History of Computer ,
• Generations of Computer,
• Characteristics of Computer,
• Advantages and limitations of Computer,
• Classification of Computers,
• Functional Components of Computer,
• Input ,Output and Processing,
• Concept of Hardware and Software,
• Data & amp; Information. Concept of data storage .
• Number system. Decimal, Binary, Hexadecimal ASCII .
 Introduction To Computer
Definition of Computer:
Computer (Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for
Technology Education and Research) is a digital electronic device
which takes inputs from the user (i.e., instructions), processes the data
and gives the exact output to the user (i.e., results).
Basically, computer can perform the following operations:
• Taking the input in the form of instruction and data.
• Process the instruction and data and stores the results.
• Displays or prints the stored results in the desired format.
Evolution and History of Computers:
• The earliest known device for calculation is Abacus. It is with 10
beads stung into the wires attached to frame and it used to perform
simple calculations.
• In 1642, Blaise Pascal developed the first basic calculator which
would do limited jobs.
• In 1690, Leibnitz developed a machine that could perform addition,
subtraction multiplication, division and square root functions.
• In 1822, Charles Babbage built a model called difference engine, it
performs calculations without human intervention..
• After that, in 1833, Babbage designed a machine called
Analytic Engine. It had an arithmetic unit to perform
calculations and mechanism to store results and
instructions and it provide the base for evolution of
modern computers. Because of such contributions
Babbage is known is the father of the modern computers.
• During late 1940’s, on Von Neumann found the concept of
stored program and encoding of instructions in the
language.
• In 1946, J Presper Eckert and John W Mauchly invented
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
machine at university of Pennsylvania. ENIAC was the first
machine to use large no. of vacuum tubes. The machinery
required a big space and lot of energy to keep it cool
Generations of Computers:
• Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed
the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient
and reliable devices.
First Generation (1945-1955): Vacuum Tubes
• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous,
taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to
operate and in addition they uses a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the
cause of malfunctions.
• The first generation of computers started with ENIAC, it was then
followed by the IBM UNIVAC-I (Universal Automatic Computer)
built by J. Presper Eckert and John W Mauchly in 1951, used for
business data processing
Second Generation (1955-65): Transistors
• To overcome difficulties in the first generation computers,
transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
• The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation computers.
• Example: IBM 1620
Third Generation (1965-80): Integrated
Circuits(IC’s)
• The development of the integrated circuit was the
hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Example: IBM 360, PDP 8 and PDP 11 Machines.
Fourth Generation (1980-89): Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI)
• This generation of computers used large scale IC’s
called Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), as it became
possible to build thousands of integrated circuits built
• Because of these, they were faster, smaller, reliable and
became more user friendly, and widely used in personal
applications, hence such machines were called personal
computers.
• Example: Apple-II, CRAY Series Super Computers and IBM PC
etc.
Fifth Generation (1989-Till date): Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• These computers made smarter in terms of processing speed,
user friendly and connectivity to the network.
• These computers are portable and very sophisticated.
• These computers used advanced software technologies, such
as parallel and distributed operating systems and artificial
intelligence.
• Example: Intel PC’s, PARAM 10000 and IBM Notebook etc
 Advantages and Characteristic Features of
Computer:
• Speed: Computer speed depends upon the type of
processor and bus line architecture used.
• Good type of processor and bus line architecture can
executes millions of instructions in one second.
• Processor speed can be measured in terms of GHz (Giga
Hertz).
• Accuracy: Computer can perform millions of operations with
the given input set of instructions and data, and the results
can be produced accurately without giving any errors.
• Reliability: Computer communication and components are
very reliable and has very less failure rate.
• Storage: Two types of storage are used, first is primary
storage and second is secondary storage.
• Primary storage stores the data temporarily for
executing the processes i.e. RAM, and secondary
storage is used for permanent storage of data i.e. hard
disk.
• Some external devices are also used to store data like
portable hard disk, pen drives, memory card etc.
• Automation: Once a set of programs is fed into the
computer, then the computer can take decision
automatically without interfering with the user.
• Example: Pen drive drivers are automatically detected
and loaded called as auto play.
• Versatility: Computers are capable of performing
various operations at same time.
• Like you are reading this webpage and downloading two
files from the internet and also printing the documents
simultaneously
• Diligence: Computer can work lot of hours with the
same speed and produces accurate results for each
operation, without getting tired.
 Disadvantages and Limitations :
• Health Issues − Working long hours on computers leads to health
issues. Student's playing games and accessing related applications
for long periods of time cause serious health problems.
• Virus and hacking attacks − Viruses are unwanted programmes
that enter computers through networks or the internet. These
programmes may steal information or damage computers.
Sometimes these lock the application programmes of the computer
to affect its working.
• No IQ − Computers cannot make their own decisions. Its
functioning depends on human interventions, No Thinking and
Decision making power, as it is unnatural...
• Crashed Networks − Hackers may destroy the
network, which affects the overall working of the
existing system.
• In today’s time, most of the data is on servers, so
destroying the network may be a serious threat to
communication.
• Online cybercrimes − The practise of using a
computer to facilitate unlawful activities including
fraud, the trafficking of child pornography and other
items of intellectual property, identity theft, and privacy
violations.
• The relevance of cybercrime, particularly over the
Internet, has increased as the computer is most widely
Data and information violation − A breach of
confidentiality occurs when information is given to a third
party without the data owner's authorization. The owner of the
data has the right to file for legal action to recover the
potential losses.
Negative effect on the environment − The increasing use
of computers and automated devices has posed a major
threat to the environment.
Spread of Pornography − The growing trend of the internet
has spread pornography. In today's time, pornography is a big
threat to society and the youth.
 Computers Classification:
Types of computers classified on based upon the purpose, data
processing, and size of the computer. Accordingly they are
classified into as follows:
1. Analog Computers :
• Analog computers are those that represent data in a
Continuous manner using physical variables such as pressure,
temperature etc.
• These classes of computers are used for scientific/engineering
purposes and are not concerned with commercial data
processing.
• A good example of this class of computer is the computer
used in hospitals for measuring blood pressure of patients,
also a filling station gasoline pumps work purely on analog
processes.
2. Digital Computers:
• These are computers that represent data in discrete or
discontinuous manner using binary system.
• A digital watch is an example of a digital device.
• The output from Digital computers are usually in the
form of discrete values.
• This class of computers is commonly found in the
business environments, and they include Desk
calculators, Adding machines, and most of the
computers we have around (IBM, BBC, Radio Shack
Personal
• Computers (PC), Laptops, and Desktops etc.
3. Hybrid Computers:
• As the name implies, this class of computers combines the
features of both digital and analog computers.
• Their outputs could be in the form of discrete or continuous
value or a combination of both.
• This class of computers is commonly found in highly
scientific environments.
4. Modern Computers: Modern computers are classified as
follows.
• 1. Super computers
• 2. Mainframe computers
• 3. Mini computers
• 4. Micro computers
A) Super computers : Most powerful computers
characterized as fastest, very high processing speed and of
large data storage.
• Specifically used for complex applications by big organization.
• Good example is NASA and ISRO uses supercomputers to
track and control space discovery.
B) Mainframe computers : Capable of performing high
processing speed and data storage but not powerful as super
computers.
• Wired in air-conditioned rooms.
• Example: ISP providers use mainframe computers to process
information about millions of internet users.
C) Mini computers : Less processing speed than mainframe
computers.
• Departments of large company’s use this type of computers.
• They can handle large database and accounting efficiently.
• Example: Department of computer monitoring the network
traffic of whole company.
D) Micro computers : Least powerful type of computers
but are the most widely used and growing in the fastest rate.
• Hardware peripherals can be attached easily.
• Includes Desktop computers (PC’s), Laptops, tablet PC's,
Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) etc.
 Applications of Computers
• The computer is used to assist man in business organizations,
research centers and in many parts of human life.
• Computers are applied in many organizations are as follows.
• Scientific Research: Computers are now standard feature of life in
universities and industrial laboratories and scientific establishment.
• Example: Forecasting, temperature and air pressure, medical
research and industrial laboratories.
• Business applications: Computer aided design (CAD), word
processors and databases are the examples for these applications.
Word processors are very useful in data entry work.
• Databases are useful in accounts i.e. just like a payroll accounts etc.
• Office automation: Office automation covers the use of
standalone word processors, personal computers, work stations,
terminals, various peripheral devices, networks and fax systems.
• These are used for document preparation, desktop publishing,
electronic mail, document storage and retrieval, data and voice
communication, business packages and information management
etc.
• Stock Controls and sales: Stock control, the processing of sales
orders and sales accounting, sales accounting, market research
forecasting and subsequent production planning are the areas.
• Insurance: Computers are very useful in insurance companies for
recording data and for producing reports.
Banking: Computers are used in banking for storing the
customer’s records, bank records and calculate the
interest rates and produces the manager’s report and
produces the statements etc. Bank transactions can also
be processed.
Educational and research: The use of computers at
various levels of academic and education have applied to
import knowledge to students in highly scientific and
practical manner.
Transport and communication: The flow of vehicular
traffic, cargo, people in transit from one place to another
are being effectively monitored through computers to
 Computer System and Organization
• All of the components of a computer system can be
summarized with the simple equations.
• COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER
• Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices
• All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can
touch) are known as Hardware.
• Software = Programs
• Software gives "intelligence" to the computer.
• USER = Person, who operates computer.
 Computer Peripherals/Hardware:
The hardware is the physical and visible components of the
computer system. Peripheral components classified as:
Input Devices: An input device is hardware device that
sends data to a computer, allowing you to interact with and
control the computer. The following are the some of input
devices listed below:
1. Keyboard: The keyboard is a way to input letters or
numbers into different applications or
programs. A keyboard also has special keys that help operate
the computer.
2. Mouse: The mouse is used to open and close files,
navigate web sites, and click on a lot of commands (to
tell the computer what to do) when using different
applications.
3. Joystick: A joystick is used to move the cursor from
place to place, and to click on various items in programs.
A joystick is used mostly for computer games.
4. Digital Camera: A digital camera can be used to take
pictures. It can be hooked up to a computer to transfer
the pictures from the camera to the computer.
5. Microphone: A microphone is used to record sound. The
sound is then saved as a sound file on the computer.
6. Scanner: A scanner is used to copy pictures or other
things and save them as files on the computer.
7. Barcode reader: A bar code scanner scans a little label
that has a bar code on it. The information is then saved on
the computer. Bar code scanners are used in libraries a lot.
8. Light Pen: Light pen is a pointing device which is similar
to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen
Output Devices: An output device is any peripheral that
receives data from a computer, usually for display,
projection, or physical reproduction.
An output given by the computer can be in the form of a
display on the screen or a printed document or a song
that is played.
The following are the some of the output devices listed
below:
1. Monitor: A monitor is also called as video display
terminal (VDT).
It visually displays the processed data, and that can be
viewed by users on the monitor.
There are two types of computer monitors available,
namely CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and flat panel (LCD-
• All monitors rely in a video card, which is located on the
motherboard to display the information.
• It is the video card, which processes the data into
images, which is eventually displayed on the monitor.
2. Printers: The next of the computer output devices is
the printer, which is an external hardware device, which
takes processed data from the computer to generate a
hard copy of the data.
• After the monitors, printers are the most used
peripherals on computers and they are commonly used
to print text data, images, etc.
• There are three main types of computer printers,
namely ink jet, laser printers and dot matrix.
• Each of these printer types uses a different technology
to print the data
3. Plotters: A plotter is a computer hardware device
much like a printer that is used for printing vector
graphics (i.e. drawing images).
• Instead of the traditional toner, plotters use a pen,
pencil, marker, or other writing tool to draw a design
onto paper.
• In general, plotters are considerably more expensive
than printers.
• They are used in engineering applications where
precision is mandatory.
 4. Speakers: A speaker is a hardware device that is
connected to a computer’s sound card, which outputs
sound generated by the card.
• Audio data generated by the computer is sent to the
audio card that is located in the expansion slot.
• The card translates the data into audio signals, which
are then sent to either the speakers or headphones.
5. Projector: It is a hardware device, with which an
image like a computer screen is projected onto a flat
screen.
• Image data is sent to the video card, by the computer
which is then translated into a video image and sent to
the projector.
• A projector is often used in meetings or to make
presentations, because they allow for a large image to
be shown, with which the display is available for a large
audience
 Computer Software:
Software refers to a set of programs that makes the
system to perform a particular set of tasks in particular
order. A computer system without software is like the
human body without life in it, or like a car without fuel.

1. System Software: System software is set of

programs, responsible for running the computer,
controlling various operations of computer systems and
management of computer resources.
Operating System: An operating system is system
software that provides an interface to the user to
communicate with the computer, manages hard devices,
maintains disk file systems and supports for application
programs.
• Example: Windows, UNIX and Linux etc.
Utilities: These are the programs that bridge the gap
between the functionality of an operating system and
needs of users.
• Example: Compress (Zip) / Un-compress (Unzip) files
software, antivirus software, and split and join files
software, etc
2. Application Software: Application software is a set
of programs, which are written to perform specific tasks.
For example, application software for managing library
known as Library information system is used to manage
information of library such as: keeping book details,
account holder details, book issue details and book return
details etc.
Generalized Packages: These are user friendly
software’s written for very general needs of users, such
as preparing documents (MS-Word), drawing pictures
(Adobe Photoshop), database software to manage data
(or) information (ORACLE), preparing presentations (MS-
PowerPoint and playing games etc.
Customized Packages: This software’s are customized
(or) developed to meet the specific requirements of an
organization or institute.
For example, student information system, payroll
packages and inventory control etc.

1)System base Software and 2)Application base Software

Memory Devices: Data and programs that are
entered into the computer are to be temporarily held for
processing.
• The results that are obtained are also to be retained
temporarily or even permanently for later usage.
• To hold this data, programs, results, etc. storage devices
have been introduced.
• There are two classes of memory devices namely:
• 1. Primary memory (or) Main memory (or) Physical
memory
• 2. Secondary memory (or) Auxiliary Memory (or)
1. Primary Memory: Primary memory is used to store
data temporarily to be processed by CPU (central
processing unit) is called main memory, i.e. whenever
the data is going to be processed, then only that data is
stored in the primary memory.
• It is volatile memory, i.e. when the power off the
processed data or results will automatically lose.
• The primary memory is divided into two types:
• a) RAM (Random Access Memory) and
• b) ROM (Read Only Memory)
Random Access Memory: RAM is a primary memory
where data and instructions are held temporarily while
the program being executed.
• It is called random access memory because any of the
locations on a chip can be directly to accessed and
retrieve data and instructions.
• RAM is called Read and Write memory and volatile, i.e.
the data in RAM will be lost automatically when the
power is switched off.
Read Only Memory: ROM chips are non-volatile, i.e. the
data and instructions are stored permanently even the
power is switched off.
• ROM chip contains Micro programs control instructions
that cause the computer to perform certain operations,
such as starting the computer programs to load
operating system.
• The contents of ROM are set by the manufacturers and
they are permanent and unchangeable.
• ROM’s are mainly three types:
• a) PROM b) EPROM c) EEPROM
• PROM (Programmable ROM): It allows a chip to be
programmed by the user and to be fused into a chip. It
allows only once to be programmed and they cannot be
altered.
• EPROM (Erasable PROM): Once information is stored
in a PROM chip cannot be changed, but it is possible by
EEPROM, i.e. it can be erased and reprogrammed. It
needs to be removed from the processor and exposed
to ultraviolet light for some time before it can store new
contents.
• EEPROM (Electrically EPROM): It can reprogram and
alter with special electrical pulses before storing new
2. Secondary Memory: It stores data permanently.
• Initially when the data which is taken from the input
devices are stored in the secondary memory, during the
execution, the data is retrieved from the secondary
memory and it is placed on the primary memory for the
execution.
• After execution is over, again the results or data is
stored in the secondary memory.
• Some of the secondary memory devices are Magnetic
Tapes, Magnetic Disks, Optical Discs (CD
• ROM, CD-R CD-RW, and DVD), Floppy Disks and Flash
 Computer Organization and Processing
• A computer can process data, pictures, sound (voice)
and graphics.
• They can solve highly complicated problems quickly and
accurately.
• A computer has the components and as shown in below
Fig. Performs basically five major computer operations
or functions:
• i) It accepts data or instructions from user
• ii) It controls all operations inside a computer
• iii) It can process data as required by the user
• iv) It stores data and
 Input Unit:
• Input Unit devices, accepts the instructions and data
from the user.
• Then it converts these instructions and data into its
equivalent computer acceptable form, after that it
supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing.
• Example: Keyboard, Mouse, Touch screen, Joystick and
Track ball etc.
Central Processing Unit:
• The control unit and ALU of a computer system are
• It takes all calculations and comparisons in a computer
systems and it is also responsible for activating and
controlling the operations of other units of computer
system.
Arithmetic Logical Unit:
• An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that
performs arithmetic and logical operations.
• The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and ALU can
perform the integer arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division), logical and
 Memory Unit:
• The Memory Unit is the part of the
computer that holds data and instructions for
processing.
• There are two types of computer memory inside the
computer: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
• Primary storage, presently known as main memory, is
the only one directly accessible to the CPU.
• Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage,
is all data storage that is not directly accessible to the
processor but uses the I/O channels.
 Output Unit:
• The output unit is just reverse of the input unit. It
accepts the result produced by computer, which are in
coded form and can't be easily understood by us.
• So that, it converts these coded results into human
readable form. After that it supplies the converted
results to the outside world.
• Example: Monitor, Printer,
Plotter, and Speakers etc.
Numbering systems, Decimal, Binary, Hexadecimal
and ASCII
• A numbering system is a systematic way to represent numbers using a
particular set of symbols.
Position Notation
• All the numbering systems are positional systems.
• That's, the value of any symbol depends on its position in the number.
• E.g. the value of 3 in the number 623 is that of three units, whereas its
value in decimal 376 is that of three hundred.
Be aware that the powers increase from the right. The power of the
rightmost digit is zero power, 100 (ones) of the next digit is on, 101
(tens), and the power of the next digit is 102 (hundreds) and so on.
These powers are also called the weight of the digit!
Therefore:
The rightmost digit is called the LEAST SIGNIFICANT DIGIT/BIT =
LSD/LSB
The leftmost digit is called the MOST SIGNIFICANT DIGIT/BIT =
MSD/MSB
 Decimal (DEC)
• The most commonly known system is the decimal
system, based on the number 10, also known as the
basis.
• The basis tells how many different individual symbols
are in the system to represent numbers.
• In the decimal system these digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9.
• Binary (BIN): The binary numbering system is based
on the number 2, and it only has two symbols: 0 and
1 (Zero and One)
• Either of these symbols can be called a binary digit or
bit, as a bit is defined as a fundamental unit of
information having just two possible values, either 0 or
1.
• An example of how to
convert from binary to
decimal can be seen
below:
• Hexadecimal (HEX) : The hexadecimal system has 16
symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
• Where A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is
15.
• The reason for choosing single letters to represent
numbers higher than 9, is to keep individual
symbols in single characters;
a binary number becomes to
interpret when one digit
represents more than one bit.
in this case a HEX digit
represents four bits, see
example below:
• ASCII : We cannot directly read HEX even though it's much easier
than reading binary! But we have been given some tools to help us
read these numbering systems, and one of them is called the ASCII
table.
 Computer Languages
• Language means, it provides communication between
user and the computer i.e. the language is understood
both by computer and user. Computer languages are
classified as:
• 1. Low level languages: The term low level means
closed to the computer and it is easily understood by
the computer. The low level languages are:
• a. Machine level language and b.Assembly level
language:
• a. Machine level language: This language (in the
form of 0’s and 1’s called binary numbers) is directly
understood by the computer and the program written in
this language is machine dependent, and it is difficult to
learn and write programs.
• b. Assembly level language: In this language the
machine codes comprising of 0’s and 1’s are substituted
by symbolic codes is called as mnemonics. Assembly
level language programming is simpler, takes less time
to execute, easy to locate and correct errors tha
machine level language programming. But it is also
machine dependent and programmers must have
2. High level languages: To overcome the limitations
of low level languages, high level languages are evolved,
which uses general language like English to write
programs.
• High level languages are easily understood by human
and to solve any problem.
• High level languages are machine independent and
programming becomes quite easy and simple.
• Example: BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code), COBOL (Common Business Oriented
Language), FORTRAN (Formula Translation), C and C++
etc.
Advantages of High Level Languages:
• 1) They are easier to learn than assembly languages.
• 2) They require less time to write.
• 3) They provide better documentation.
• 4) They are easier to maintain and debug.