Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
Chapter 9: Virtual
Memory
Background
Demand Paging
Copy-on-Write
Page Replacement
Allocation of Frames
Thrashing
Memory-Mapped Files
Allocating Kernel Memory
Other Considerations
Operating-System Examples
Objectives
To describe the benefits of a virtual memory
system
To explain the concepts of demand paging, page-
replacement algorithms, and allocation of page
frames
To discuss the principle of the working-set model
Background
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory.
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
Allows for more efficient process creation
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical
Memory
Virtual-address Space
Shared Library Using
Virtual Memory
Demand Paging
Bring a page into memory only when it is needed
Less I/O needed
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Page is needed reference to it
invalid reference abort
not-in-memory bring to memory
Lazy swapper – never swaps a page into memory
unless page will be needed
Swapper that deals with pages is a pager
Transfer of a Paged Memory to Contiguous Disk
Space
Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v in-memory, i not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
Example of a page table snapshot:
Frame # valid-invalid bit
v
v
v
v
i
….
i
i
page table
During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry
is I page fault
Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main
Memory
Page Fault
If there is a reference to a page, first reference to that
page will trap to operating system:
page fault
1. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
Invalid reference abort
Just not in memory
2. Get empty frame
3. Swap page into frame
4. Reset tables
5. Set validation bit = v
6. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault
Page Fault (Cont.)
Restart instruction
block move
auto increment/decrement location
Steps in Handling a Page
Fault
Performance of Demand
Paging
Page Fault Rate 0 p 1.0
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in
+ restart overhead
)
Demand Paging Example
Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
Process Creation
Virtual memory allows other benefits during
process creation:
- Copy-on-Write
- Memory-Mapped Files (later)
Copy-on-Write
Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child
processes to initially share the same pages in
memory
If either process modifies a shared page, only
then is the page copied
COW allows more efficient process creation as
only modified pages are copied
Free pages are allocated from a pool of zeroed-
out pages
Before Process 1 Modifies
Page C
After Process 1 Modifies
Page C
What happens if there is no free
frame?
Page replacement – find some page in memory, but
not really in use, swap it out
algorithm
performance – want an algorithm which will result in
minimum number of page faults
Same page may be brought into memory several
times
Page Replacement
Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying
page-fault service routine to include page
replacement
Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of
page transfers – only modified pages are written
to disk
Page replacement completes separation between
logical memory and physical memory – large
virtual memory can be provided on a smaller
physical memory
Need For Page
Replacement
Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
2. Find a free frame:
- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page
replacement algorithm to select a victim
frame
3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free
frame; update the page and frame tables
4. Restart the process
Page Replacement
Page Replacement
Algorithms
Want lowest page-fault rate
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular
string of memory references (reference string) and
computing the number of page faults on that string
In all our examples, the reference string is
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Graph of Page Faults Versus The
Number of Frames
First-In-First-Out (FIFO)
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Algorithm
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
1 1 4 5
2 2 1 3 9 page faults
3 3 2 4
4 frames
1 1 5 4
2 2 1 5 10 page faults
3 3 2
4 4 3
Belady’s Anomaly: more frames more page faults
FIFO Page Replacement
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s
Anomaly
Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period
of time
4 frames example 1 4
1, 2, 3,24, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, faults
6 page 5
4 5
How do you know this?
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs
Optimal Page
Replacement
Least Recently Used (LRU)
Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1 1 1 1 5
2 2 2 2 2
3 5 5 4 4
4 4 3 3 3
Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced
through this entry, copy the clock into the counter
When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to
determine which are to change
LRU Page Replacement
LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Stack implementation – keep a stack of page
numbers in a double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
No search for replacement
Use Of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page
References
LRU Approximation
Algorithms
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1
Replace the one which is 0 (if one exists)
We do not know the order, however
Second chance
Need reference bit
Clock replacement
If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit = 1
then:
set reference bit 0
leave page in memory
replace next page (in clock order), subject to same rules
Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm
Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count
MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the
page with the smallest count was probably just
brought in and has yet to be used
Allocation of Frames
Each process needs minimum number of pages
Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE
instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages
2 pages to handle from
2 pages to handle to
Two major allocation schemes
fixed allocation
priority allocation
Fixed Allocation
Equal allocation – For example, if there are 100 frames and
5 processes, give each process 20 frames.
Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of
process
si size of process pi
S si
m total number of frames
s
ai allocation for pi i m
S
m 64
si 10
s2 127
10
a1 64 5
137
127
a2 64 59
137
Priority Allocation
Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities
rather than size
If process Pi generates a page fault,
select for replacement one of its frames
select for replacement a frame from a process with lower
priority number
Global vs. Local Allocation
Global replacement – process selects a
replacement frame from the set of all frames; one
process can take a frame from another
Local replacement – each process selects from
only its own set of allocated frames
Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault
rate is very high. This leads to:
low CPU utilization
operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree
of multiprogramming
another process added to the system
Thrashing a process is busy swapping pages in and out
Thrashing (Cont.)
Demand Paging and Thrashing
Why does demand paging work?
Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another
Localities may overlap
Why does thrashing occur?
size of locality > total memory size
Locality In A Memory-Reference
Pattern
Working-Set Model
working-set window a fixed number of page
references
Example: 10,000 instruction
WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =
total number of pages referenced in the most recent
(varies in time)
if too small will not encompass entire locality
if too large will encompass several localities
if = will encompass entire program
D = WSSi total demand frames
if D > m Thrashing
Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes
Working-set model
Keeping Track of the
Working Set
Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit
Example: = 10,000
Timer interrupts after every 5000 time units
Keep in memory 2 bits for each page
Whenever a timer interrupts copy and sets the
values of all reference bits to 0
If one of the bits in memory = 1 page in working
set
Why is this not completely accurate?
Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000
time units
Page-Fault Frequency
Scheme
Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate
If actual rate too low, process loses frame
If actual rate too high, process gains frame
Working Sets and Page Fault Rates
Memory-Mapped Files
Memory-mapped file I/O allows file I/O to be treated
as routine memory access by mapping a disk block
to a page in memory
A file is initially read using demand paging. A page-
sized portion of the file is read from the file system
into a physical page. Subsequent reads/writes
to/from the file are treated as ordinary memory
accesses.
Simplifies file access by treating file I/O through
memory rather than read() write() system calls
Also allows several processes to map the same file
allowing the pages in memory to be shared
Memory Mapped Files
Memory-Mapped Shared Memory
in Windows
Allocating Kernel Memory
Treated differently from user memory
Often allocated from a free-memory pool
Kernel requests memory for structures of varying
sizes
Some kernel memory needs to be contiguous
Buddy System
Allocates memory from fixed-size segment
consisting of physically-contiguous pages
Memory allocated using power-of-2 allocator
Satisfies requests in units sized as power of 2
Request rounded up to next highest power of 2
When smaller allocation needed than is available,
current chunk split into two buddies of next-lower
power of 2
Continue until appropriate sized chunk available
Buddy System Allocator
Slab Allocator
Alternate strategy
Slab is one or more physically contiguous pages
Cache consists of one or more slabs
Single cache for each unique kernel data structure
Each cache filled with objects – instantiations of the
data structure
When cache created, filled with objects marked as
free
When structures stored, objects marked as used
If slab is full of used objects, next object allocated
from empty slab
If no empty slabs, new slab allocated
Benefits include no fragmentation, fast memory
request satisfaction
Slab Allocation
Other Issues -- Prepaging
Prepaging
To reduce the large number of page faults that occurs at
process startup
Prepage all or some of the pages a process will need, before
they are referenced
But if prepaged pages are unused, I/O and memory was wasted
Assume s pages are prepaged and α of the pages is used
Is cost of s * α save pages faults > or < than the cost of prepaging
s * (1- α) unnecessary pages?
α near zero prepaging loses
Other Issues – Page Size
Page size selection must take into consideration:
fragmentation
table size
I/O overhead
locality
Other Issues – TLB Reach
TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from
the TLB
TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size)
Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in
the TLB
Otherwise there is a high degree of page faults
Increase the Page Size
This may lead to an increase in fragmentation as not all
applications require a large page size
Provide Multiple Page Sizes
This allows applications that require larger page sizes the
opportunity to use them without an increase in
fragmentation
Other Issues – Program
Structure
Program structure
Int[128,128] data;
Each row is stored in one page
Program 1
for (j = 0; j <128; j++)
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 x 128 = 16,384 page faults
Program 2
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 128; j++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 page faults
Other Issues – I/O interlock
I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be locked
into memory
Consider I/O - Pages that are used for copying a
file from a device must be locked from being
selected for eviction by a page replacement
algorithm
Reason Why Frames Used For I/O Must Be In
Memory
Operating System
Examples
Windows XP
Solaris
Windows XP
Uses demand paging with clustering. Clustering
brings in pages surrounding the faulting page
Processes are assigned working set minimum and
working set maximum
Working set minimum is the minimum number of
pages the process is guaranteed to have in memory
A process may be assigned as many pages up to its
working set maximum
When the amount of free memory in the system falls
below a threshold, automatic working set trimming
is performed to restore the amount of free memory
Working set trimming removes pages from processes
that have pages in excess of their working set
minimum
Solaris
Maintains a list of free pages to assign faulting
processes
Lotsfree – threshold parameter (amount of free
memory) to begin paging
Desfree – threshold parameter to increasing paging
Minfree – threshold parameter to being swapping
Paging is performed by pageout process
Pageout scans pages using modified clock algorithm
Scanrate is the rate at which pages are scanned.
This ranges from slowscan to fastscan
Pageout is called more frequently depending upon
the amount of free memory available
Solaris 2 Page Scanner
End of Chapter 9
