GENERAL
A N AT O M Y
OF
GENERAL ANATOMY OF BONES
Definition: It is a specialized, constantly changing
connective tissue and are composed of cells, a dense
intercellular substance impregnated with calcium salts
and numerous blood vessels.
Components …… cells & matrix.
• cells:-
osteoblasts bone production
osteocytes bone maintenance
osteoclasts bone resorption
• Matrix:-
1/3 Inorganic calcium salts-
calcium phosphate
calcium carbonate
2/3 Organic connective tissue – collagen fibres
FUNCTIONS OF
BONES ?
Shape & Support to the body
Protection of soft organs.
Provides surface for muscle
attachment.
Serves as levers for muscle actions
Storage of minerals (97% of body ca
& p)
Bone marrow…Blood cell formation
Reticulo-endothelial cells-immune
response
Para nasal air sinuses – resonance to
the voice
PECULIARITIES OF BONE
living tissue….. ?
Highly vascular, with constant turn over of its calcium
content;
Shows a characteristic pattern of growth;
Subjective to disease, and heals after a fracture;
Greater regenerative power than any other tissue of the
body, except blood;
It can mould itself according to changes in stress and
strain;
It shows disuse atrophy and overuse hypertrophy.
CLASSIFICATION
According to
According to According to According to
Developmen
shape : Region : structure :
t:
long Membrane
Macroscopically
Short bones
Axial • Compact
• cancellous
Flat
Irregular Cartilaginou Appendicula
Pneumatic s bones r
Microscopically
Sesamoid
• Lamellar
Accessory Membrano- • Woven
Heterotopic cartilaginous • Fibrous
• Dentine
• Cement
ACCORDING TO POSITION
Axial skeleton
-
Skull,vertebrae,ribs,sternum
Appendicular skeleton
- limbs and girdle
AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Skull Pectoral girdles 4
Cranium 8
Face 14 Pelvic girdles 2
Hyoid 1
Auditory ossicles 6 Upper extremities 60
Vertebral column 26
Thorax Lower extremities 60
Sternum 1
Ribs 24 TOTAL
TOTAL 80 126
TOTAL BONES OF THE BODY 206
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
ACCORDING TO SHAPE
Long bones:
Short bones:
Flat bones:
Irregular bones:
Pneumatic bones:
Sesamoid bones:
Accessory
(supernumerary)
bones:
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Long bones:
Elongated shaft
Two expanded ends
Examples:
A) typical long bones -
Femur, humerus
B) miniature long bones-
Metatarsals,
Metacarpals
C) modified long bones-
Clavicle,
Body of a vertebra
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Short bones:-
Usually cuboid,cuneiform,trapezoid,
scaphoid in shape
Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Flat bones:-
Thin and flattened - Plate like
Form boundaries of certain body cavities
Thin layers of compact bone around a
layer of spongy bone
Examples: Vault of Skull, ribs, sternum
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Irregular bones:-
Irregular shape
Do not fit into other bone
classification categories
Example: Vertebrae and hip
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• Pneumatic bones:-
– Irregular bone contain large air spaces lined by
epithelium.
– Make the skull light in weight
– Help in resonance of voice
– Acts as a air-conditioning chamber
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• Sesamoid bones:
Derived from Arabic word-
sesame….. ‘seed’
• Patella, fabella pisiform,etc
Peculiarities:
Develops in tendon of muscles;
Ossify after birth
Devoid of periosteum
Absence of Haversian system
Functions:
To resist pressure
To minimize friction
To alter the direction of pull of the
muscle
Act as pulley for muscle contraction
To maintain local circulation
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• Accessory (supernumerary) bones:
– Not always present.
– May occur as ununited epiphyses
– Develop as extra centres of ossification.
– Medico-legal imp.
– e.g. Sutural bones,
Os trigonum,
- Os vesalianum.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• Heterotopic bones:
-Sometimes bones develops in soft
tissues.
“Rider’s bone”
Develops in adductor muscles in
horse riders.
“Os cordis”
Bone develops in cardiac muscles.
-seen in pigs.
(C) DEVELOPMENTAL CLASSIFICATION
1.Membranous (Dermal) bones
2.Cartilaginous bones
3.Membrano- cartilaginous bones
• Somatic bones:
• Develop from somites or somatopluric mesoderm
eg -most of the bones of the body
• Visceral bones:
• Develops from mesoderm of pharyngeal
or branchial arches
e.g. -hyoid bones,
-part of mandible,
-ear ossicles
1. Membranous bones:
• Ossify in membrane
Derived from mesenchymal condensation
e.g.- bones of cranial vault
- facial bones
Defect in membranous ossification cause
Cleidocranial dysostosis
2.Cartilaginous bone:
Ossify in cartilage
(endochondral ossification)
Derived from preformed
cartilaginous model
e.g. - Bones of limbs
Bones of base of skull
Vertebral column
Thoracic cage
defect cause - Achondroplasia
3. Membrano - cartilaginous bones:
Partly ossify in membrane & partly in cartilage
e.g. – clavicle, mandible, occipital, temporal, sphenoid
bone
temporal sphenoid
occipital
mandible
(D)STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
Macroscopically:-
1.Compact bone
2.Cancellous (spongy) bone
Microscopically:-
1.Lamellar bone
2.Woven bone
3.Fibrous bone
4.Dentine
5.Cement
Compact bone:
Dense in texture
Extremely porous
Best developed in cortex
of the long bones
Adaptation to bending &
twisting forces.
Cancellous bone:
• Open in texture
• Made up of a meshwork of
trabeculae(rods and plates)
between which are marrow
containing spaces.
• Trabecular meshworks:
1. Meshwork of rods
2. Meshwork of rods and
plates
3. Meshwork of plates
Cancellous bone is an
adaption to compressive
forces
• Microscopically:
1.Lamellar bone:
-most mature human bones
2. Woven bone:
- foetal bone
-fracture repair site
-cancer of bone
3. Fibrous bone:
-young foetal bones
-reptiles and amphibia
4.Dentine:
5.Cement:
Trajectory theory of Wolff
Wolff’s Law
• Osteogenesis is directly proportional to stress
and strain.
• Tensile force favours bone formation
• Compressive force favours bone resorption
• Lamellae ……
• Pressure lamellae….parallel to line of weight
transmission
• Tension lamellae … at right angle to
pressure lamella
GROSS STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL LONG BON
Three parts:
Shaft
Two ends
SHAFT :
From outside inwards
A. Periosteum
B. Cortex
C. Medullary cavity
D. Endosteum
A) PERIOSTEUM
Thick fibrous membrane
Two layers
Sharpey’s fibre
Rich nerve supply
Functions
Protects
Receives the
attachment
Maintains shape
Give nutrition
Help in bone formation
during growth & repair.
• Cortex
– Compact bone
– Strength
M E D U L L A RY C AV I T Y
• Bone marrow
– 2 forms
1) RED
2) Yellow
• Red Marrow
• New born
• After 20 years
• Skull
• Sternum, ribs
• Vertebrae, Iliac cresst
• Ends of long bones
• Some short bones
• Yellow Marrow
• Fat
• Some Hemopoietic
elements
D) ENDOSTEUM:
Lines the medullary cavity
• Have role in bone remodeling
and repair
TWO ENDS :
• Made up of cancellous bone
covered by thin shell of
compact bone.
• Articular hyaline cartilage
DEVELOPMENT &
OSSIFICATION
BONE CELLS
From mesenchymal Osteoprogenitor cell
Osteoblast
Organic material
Alkaline phosphatase
Osteocytes
Woven bone
Remodeling
Mature bone
T Y P E S O F O SS I F I C AT I O N
Intramembranous ossification
I N T R A C A RT I L A G I N O U S O SS I F I C AT I O N
CENTER OF OSSIFICATION
The area of bone, where bone formation or ossification
starts in a cartilaginous model.
Primary centre:
Main part - Shaft
Before birth
e.g. : Shaft of long bones
Exceptions- Carpals & Tarsals, except
talus, calcaneus & cuboid bones.
Secondary centre:
Accessory parts - Ends
After birth
Exceptions: Lower end of femur &
upper end of tibia.
PA R T S O F A Y O U N G L O N G B O N E
DIAPHYSIS
METAPHYSIS
EPIPHYSIS
EPIPHYSIAL PLATE OF
CARTILAGE
DIAPHYSIS :-
From a primary
centre.
Shaft of a long bone
METAPHYSIS :
Epiphysial ends of diaphysis
Zone of active growth
Profuse blood supply
E P I P H Y S I S *Most IMP
The ends and tips of a bone which ossify from secondary centres
are called epiphyses.
Mostly having spongy bone.
• Four types:
1) Pressure epiphysis;
2) Traction epiphysis;
3) Atavistic epiphysis;
Pressure epiphysis
Articular
Transmission of weight
e.g. Head of femur, lower end of radius
Traction epiphysis-
Nonarticular
Provide muscle attachment
e.g. Trochanters of femur
Tubercles of humerus
Pressure epiphysis always appear before Traction epiphysis*
Atavistic epiphysis-
Coracoid process of
scapula
Posterior tubercle of talus
Aberrant epiphysis-
Not always present
Appears at unusual end
Head of first metacarpal
When more than one epiphysis present at one or both ends:
• Simple Epiphysis
• Compound Epiphysis
EPIPHYSIAL PLATE OF CARTILAGE :-
Separates epiphysis from metaphysis
Lengthwise growth of a long bone
After fusion - no longer growth in length
B LO O D S U P P LY O F B O N E S
• TYPICAL LONG BONES :-
Supplied by four sets of blood vessels
• (1) Nutrient artery
Middle of the shaft through the nutrient
foramen
Medullary cavity, inner 2/3 of cortex and
metaphysis
‘HAIR –PIN’ BENDS AND OSTEOMYLITIES
(2) Epiphyseal arteries
from circulus vasculosus
(3) Periosteal arteries:-
Outer 1/3 of the cortex
(4) Juxta-epiphyseal or
Metaphysial arteries
• SHORT BONES
• By numerous periosteal vessels
which enter their nonarticular surface
• MINIATURE LONG BONES
Nutrient artery breaks up
in to plexus
Infection begins in middle
of the shaft, rather than
metaphysis.
In adults chances of
infection are less
Because NA is replaced by
periosteal arteries.
F L AT B O N E S
Nutrient Artery:-
pierce compact part
of flat bones.
Periosteal Artery:-
major share in blood
supply.
RREGULAR BONES (VERTEBRA)
From basi-vertebral
foramen
Through antero-
lateral surface.
Pierce root of
transverse process,
and supply vertebral
arch.
Venous drainage:
– Cancellous & red marrow containing
bones- Large and Numerous
• e.g.-basivertebral veins.
– Compact bones: Accompany blood
vessels
Nerve supply:
– Accompany blood vessels
– Sympathetic and vasomotor
– Periosteum – reach nerve supply
L AW O F U N I O N O F E P I P H Y S I S
The epiphyseal center which appears first , unites last with
the diaphysis and vice – versa.
Bone violating the law
of ossification……
Fibula….
Lower end
Appear first
also
Fuses first
GROWING END OF THE LONG BONES:
• The end where the secondary centre appears first
and unites last with the diaphysis.
• Increase length of bone
Knowledge of the growing ends is important in clinical
practice.
– Fracture at growing end Stunted growth
Nutrient foramen: Directed away from the
growing end of the bone
‘TO THE ELBOW I GO,
FROM THE KNEE I FLEE’
GROWTH OF LONG BONE
IN LENGTH: Epiphysial plate of
cartilage
IN WIDTH: Supperiosteal
deposition
Appositional Growth or
Surface Accretion
Remodelling
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF
BONES
NUTRITIONAL
Deficiency of vitamin A,D,C
Disuse atrophy
HORMONAL
Secretion from Pituitary, Parathyroid, Calcitonin
GENETIC
Chondrodystrophia Foetalis
MECHANICAL
Tensile force…..Bone formation
Compressive force…..Bone resorption
MEDICOLEGAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL
ASPECTS
Weather the bones are
human or not;
Weather they belong to
one or more persons;
The age of individual;
The sex;
The stature;
The time and cause of
death
CLINICAL ANATOMY
• Atrophy and Hypertrophy • Osteomalasia
• Periosteum • Osteoporosis
• Cleidocranial dysostosis • Bone marrow aspiration
• Achondroplasia • Bone tumour
• Fracture • Bone graft
• Rickets • Bone bank
• Scurvy
1. Atrophy , if not used i.e. become thinner and weakened
Hypertrophy
– overuse
2. Periosteum
Very sensitive to pain, particularly to tearing and tension.
Therefore drilling into the bone without anaesthesia is very
painful.
CLEIDOCRANIAL DYSOSTOSIS
Defect in membranous
ossification.
• It may be hereditary or
environmental in origin.
Three cardinal features:
(i) Aplasia of the clavicles
(ii) Increase in the transverse
diameter of cranium
(iii) Retardation in fontanelle
ossification
ACHONDROPLASIA
Defect in endochondral
ossification.
Limbs are short ,but the
trunk is normal.
Transmitted as a Mendelian
dominant character
FRACTURE
It is the break in the continuity of a bone.
Simple(closed) fracture
Compound(open) fracture
HEALING (REPAIR) OF A FRACTURE
Fracture hemetoma
Repair by granulation tissue
Union by callus
External callus
Internal callus
Remodelling by mature bones
SCURVY ( DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN
C )
• Formation of collagenous fibres and
matrix is impaired
• Rupture of capillaries and defective
formation of new capillaries
• Haematoma in the muscles and
bones
• Normal architecture at the growing
ends is lost
RICKETS
( DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN D in
children)
• Defective mineralization of bone in
children usually as a result of
insufficient sunlight or vitamin D ––
causes bone softening and deformity
• Calcification of cartilage fails and
ossification of growth zone is
disturbed.
• Affects growing bone; 3 months to
3 years
OSTEOMALACIA
Deficiency of calcium, vitamin D in adult life.
Bones on x-rays examination do not reveal
enough trabeculae
OSTEOPOROSIS
• The most common bone disease –
characterized by low bone mass,
increased skeletal fragility, and
susceptibility to fractures
• –Associated with lack of exercise or
estrogen deficiency
• – Estrogen inhibits osteoclast activity –
Loss of organic matrix and minerals –
Affects spongy bone in particular
– Frequently involves the hip, wrist
and vertebra
• Seen both in females and males
• Forward bending of the vertebral
column, leading to kyphosis
BONE MARROW ASPIRATION
• Done for the diagnostic purpose
• The sites commonly used are:-
Manubrium of sternum
Iliac crests of hip bones
Lumber spinous process
BONE TUMOUR
Benign tumour:Osteoma
Malignant:Osteosarcoma
BONE BANKS , BONE GRAFTS
The Bone Bank is a facility for collecting, storing and freezing
human bone for use in patients requiring a bone allograft (the
transplantation of bone between two unrelated people).
SUMMARY
• INTRODUCTION
• FUNCTIONS OF BONES
• CLASSIFICATION
• CENTER OF OSSIFICATION
• PARTS OF A YOUNG(GROWING) LONG BONE
• GROSS STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL LONG BONE
• LAW OF UNION OF EPIPHYSIS
• BLOOD SUPPLY OF BONES
• FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF BONES
• MEDICOLEGAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASPECTS
• CLINICAL ANATOMY
