Immunity

Dr. S.M. Ng’andwe

Anatomy and Physiology
TAU-ZM
Objectives
• At the end of this topic you must be able to:
1. Discuss the organization of the immune system
2. Outline the development of immunity
3. Explain the role of different immune cells in
immunity
4. Discuss Immunization and Vaccination
Introduction
• The human body has the ability to resist almost all types of
organisms or toxins that tend to damage the tissues and
organs.
• This capability is called immunity.
• Immunity is defined as the capacity of the body to
resist pathogenic agents.
• It can be divided into two (2) types:
1. Innate immunity (Non-specific immunity)
2. Acquired immunity (Specific immunity)
Innate immunity (Natural/Non-specific immunity)
• Innate
immunity is the
inborn capacity
of the body to
resist
pathogens.
• It results from
general
processes,
rather than
from processes
directed at
specific disease
organisms.
Innate immunity – skin & mucous membranes
• The skin and mucous membranes of the body are the first
line of defense against pathogens.
• They provide both physical and chemical barriers.
• The epidermis provides a formidable physical barrier to the
entrance of microbes.
• Bacteria rarely penetrate the intact surface of healthy
epidermis.
• Mucous membranes, which line body cavities, secrete a fluid
called mucus which traps many microbes and foreign
substances.
• Continual washing action of tears helps to dilute microbes
and keep them from settling on the surface of the eye.
Innate immunity – skin & mucous membranes
• Lysozyme, an enzyme capable of breaking down the cell wall
of certain bacteria is present in many secretions including
tears, saliva, nasal secretions and tissue fluid.
• Saliva just like tears washes away bacteria, preventing
colonization.
• The cleansing of the urethra by the flow of urine retards
microbial colonization of the urinary system.
• Vaginal secretions likewise move microbes out of the body in
females.
• Normal flora also prevents growth of pathogenic bacteria.
• Certain chemicals also contribute to the high degree of
resistance of the skin and mucous membranes to microbial
invasion.
Innate immunity – internal defenses
• When pathogens penetrate the physical and chemical
barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, they encounter
a second line of defense.
• This second line of defense includes: internal
antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer
cells, inflammation, and fever.
Antimicrobial substances:
1. Interferons (INFs) – released by lymphocytes,
macrophages & fibroblasts infected with viruses induce
uninfected neighboring cells to release antiviral proteins
that interfere with viral replication.
Innate immunity – internal defenses
2. Complement system: mediated by proteins called complement
factors present in an inactive form within the plasma or on plasma
membranes. The complement system causes cytolysis (bursting) of
microbes, promotes phagocytosis, and contributes to inflammation.

3. Iron-binding proteins: inhibit the growth of certain bacteria by

reducing the amount of available iron. These proteins include
transferrin (found in blood), lactoferrin (found in milk, saliva, and
mucus), ferretin (found in the liver, spleen, and red bone marrow)
and hemoglobin (found in red blood cells).

4. Antimicrobial proteins (AMPs): short peptides that have a broad

spectrum of antimicrobial activity. These include dermicidin
(produced in sweat glands), defensins and cathelicidins (produced
by neutrophils, macrophages, and epithelia) thrombocidin
(produced by platelets)
Innate immunity – internal defenses
Natural Killer (NK) Cells and Phagocytes
• These are the next nonspecific defense when microbes
penetrate the skin and mucous membranes or bypass the
antimicrobial substances in blood.
• Natural killer cells have the ability to kill a variety of
infected body cells and certain tumor cells.
• They release perforins that compromise target cell
membrane resulting in lysis and granzymes that cause
apoptosis of the target cell.
• NK cells kill infected cells, but not the microbes inside the
cells.
• Phagocytes are specialized cells that ingest microbes or
other particles such as cellular debris.
Innate immunity – internal defenses
Natural Killer (NK) Cells and Phagocytes
• The two major types of phagocytes are neutrophils and
macrophages.
• When an infection occurs, neutrophils and monocytes
migrate to the infected area.
• During this migration monocytes differentiate into
macrophages.
Innate immunity – internal defenses
Inflammation
• This is a nonspecific, defensive response of the body to
tissue damage.
• Among the conditions that may produce inflammation are
pathogens, abrasions, chemical irritations, distortion
or disturbances of cells, and extreme temperatures.
• The four characteristic signs and symptoms of inflammation
are redness, pain, heat, and swelling.
• Inflammation can also cause the loss of function in the
injured area.
Innate immunity – internal defenses
• The inflammatory response has three basic stages:
1. Vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels
2. Emigration (movement) of phagocytes from the blood into
interstitial fluid
3. Tissue repair
Innate immunity – internal defenses
Fever
• This is an abnormally high body temperature that occurs
because the hypothalamic thermostat is reset.
• It commonly occurs during infection and inflammation.
• Many bacterial toxins elevate body temperature, by
triggering release of fever-causing cytokines such as
interleukin-1 from macrophages.
• Elevated body temperature intensifies the effects of
interferons, inhibits the growth of some microbes, and
speeds up body reactions that aid repair.
Acquired immunity (Adaptive/Specific immunity)
• This is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific
invading agents such as bacteria, toxins, viruses, and foreign
tissues.
• Two properties distinguish adaptive immunity from innate
immunity:
1. Specificity for particular foreign molecules (antigens),
which also involves distinguishing self from non-self
molecules
2. Memory for most previously encountered antigens so that
a second encounter prompts an even more rapid and
vigorous response
• There are two types of adaptive immunity:
1. Cell-mediated immunity
Acquired immunity - Cell-mediated immunity
• It is particularly effective against
1. Intracellular pathogens e.g. viruses, bacteria, or fungi that
are inside cells
2. Some cancer cells
3. Foreign tissue transplants
• Cell-mediated immunity is offered by T lymphocytes
• It starts developing when T cells come in contact with the
antigens
• The invading microbial or non-microbial organisms carry the
antigenic materials.
• These antigenic materials are released from invading
organisms and are presented to the helper T cells by
antigen-presenting cells.
Acquired immunity - Cell-mediated immunity
• T – lymphocytes differentiate into cytotoxic T cells (CD8),
Helper T cells (CD4), Memory T cells and Suppressor T
Cells.
Acquired immunity - Cell-mediated immunity
Acquired immunity - Cell-mediated immunity
Acquired immunity - Humoral (antibody-mediated)
immunity
• B lymphocytes or B cells, are responsible for humoral
immunity.
• The humoral immunity is the major defense mechanism
against the bacterial infection.
• Antigen presenting cells play an important role in the
development of humoral immunity.
• B cells transform into plasma cells, which synthesize and
secrete specific proteins called antibodies (Abs) or
immunoglobulins and Memory B cells.
• A given antibody can bind to and inactivate a specific
antigen.
Acquired immunity - antibodies
Immune system
Immunization
• Immunization is defined as the procedure by which the body
is prepared to fight against a specific disease.
• It is used to induce the immune resistance of the body to a
specific disease.
• Immunization is of two types:
1. Passive immunization
2. Active immunization
Passive immunization
• Passive immunization or immunity is produced without
challenging the immune system of the body.
• It is done by administration of serum or gamma globulins
from a person who is already immunized (affected by the
disease) to a non-immune person.
• Passive immunization is acquired either naturally or
artificially
1. Passive Natural Immunization: acquired from the
mother before and after birth. Before birth (IgG through
the placenta to the fetus) and after birth (IgA passed to the
fetus through breast milk). passive immunity is short lived.
Passive immunization
2. Passive Artificial Immunization: developed by injecting
previously prepared antibodies using serum from humans or
animals. Antibodies are obtained from the persons affected
by the disease or from animals, particularly horses which
have been immunized artificially. It is done prophylactically
and therapeutically.
Active immunization
• Active immunization or immunity is acquired by activating
immune system of the body.
• Body develops resistance against disease by producing
antibodies following the exposure to antigens.
• Active immunity is acquired either naturally or artificially.
1. Active Natural Immunization: involves activation of
immune system in the body to produce antibodies. It is
achieved in both clinical and subclinical infections.
2. Active Artificial Immunization: a type of immunization
achieved by the administration of vaccines or toxoids.
Active immunization
• Vaccine is a substance that is introduced into the body to
prevent the disease produced by certain pathogens.
• Vaccine consists of dead pathogens or live but attenuated
(artificially weakened) organisms.
• The vaccine induces immunity against the pathogen, either
by production of antibodies or by activation of T
lymphocytes.
• Toxoid is a substance which is normally toxic and has been
processed to destroy its toxicity but retains its capacity to
induce antibody production by immune system.
Quiz
 References
• Prescribed Books:
• 1. Zuckerman S. A New System of Anatomy. Oxford Medical Publications.
• 2. Guyton & Hall- Textbook of Medical Physiology [Link] E. Hall.
• 3. Anatomy for students. Richard Drake L, Wayne Vogl A. Elsevier.
• 4. Medical Physiology. Walter [Link], Emile [Link].

• Recommended Books:
• 1. Berne & Levy - Physiology 7/2017. Bruce M. Koeppen. S.
• 2. Review of Medical Physiology. Kim Barrett E, Susan Barman M.
• 3. Clinical Anatomy. Richard S. Snell. Wolters Kluwer.