MIT School of Computing

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Third Year Engineering

21BTCS501-OPERATING SYSTEM

Class - T.Y.
PLD(SEM-V)

Unit - I

INTRODUCTION
AY 2024-2025 SEM-I

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Unit-I INTRODUCTION

● What Operating Systems, Computer-System Organization,

Computer-System Architecture, Operating-System Structure,
Operating-System Operations,
PLD Process Management, Memory
Management, Storage Management, Protection and Security,
Operating-System Service, User Operating-System Interface,
System Calls, Types of System Calls, System Programs,
Operating-System Design and Implementation, Operating-
System Structure, Virtual Machines

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 MIT School of Computing
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Unit-II PROCESS MANAGEMENT

● Process Concept, Process Scheduling, Operations on

Processes, Interprocess Communication, 5 Examples of
PLD
IPC Systems, Multithreading Models, Threading Issues,
CPU Scheduling, Basic Concepts, Scheduling Criteria,
Scheduling Algorithms, Multiple-Processor Scheduling,
Thread Scheduling

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Unit-III
PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION
AND DEADLOCKS
• Background, The Critical-Section Problem, Peterson's
Solution, Synchronization
PLD Hardware, Semaphores,
Classic Problems of Synchronization, Monitors,
Synchronization Example, Atomic Transactions,
Deadlocks, System Model, Deadlock Characterization,
Methods for Handling Deadlocks, Deadlock Prevention,
Deadlock Avoidance, Deadlock Detection, Recovery from
Deadlock

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Unit-IV MEMORY MANAGEMENT

● Background, Swapping, Contiguous Memory Allocation,

Paging, Structure of the Page Table, Segmentation,
PLD
Virtual Memory, Background, Demand Paging, Copy~on-
Write, Page Replacement, Allocation of Frames,
Thrashing

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Unit-V STORAGE MANAGEMENT

● File-System Interface, File Concept, Access Methods,

Directory Structure, File-System Mounting, File Sharing,
Protection, File-SystemPLD Implementation, File-System
Structure, File-System Implementation, Directory
Implementation, Allocation Methods, Free-Space
Management, Efficiency and Performance, Recovery, Mass-
Storage Structure, Disk Structure, Disk Scheduling, Swap-
Space Management
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MIT School of Computing
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OS Introduction
• Dr. Pankaj PLD
Chandre

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

UNIT 1- Introduction to OS
●
What Operating Systems, Computer-System Organization, Computer-System
Architecture, Operating-System Structure, Operating-System Operations, Process
Management, Memory Management, Storage Management, Protection and Security,
Operating-System Service, User Operating-System Interface, System Calls, Types of
PLD
System Calls, System Programs, Operating-System Design and Implementation,
Operating-System Structure, Virtual Machines

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Text Books:
1. Systems Programming and Operating Systems, Dhamdhere D.M, TMGH
2. Modern Operating System – Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Pearson Education
India
3. Operating System Concepts - Abraham Silberschatz, Peter B. Galvin &
Grege Gagne, Wiley

References:
4. Operating System : Concepts andPLDDesign - Milan Milenkovic, TMGH
5. Understanding the Linux kernel - Daniel P Bovet and Marco Cesati, O’Reilly
6. Linux System Programming - Robert Love, Publisher - SPD, O’ Reilly
7. Systems programming - John J. Donovan, TMGH

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What is System?
-System is the collection of various components
-Ex: College is a system, because it consist of various
components like various departments, classroom, faculties
and students.
What is Programming?
PLD
-Art of designing and implementing the programs
In a college system, what is program?
A LECTURE can be a program, because it has input and
output.
Input: The information that teacher is delivering.
Output: The knowledge student has been received.

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 MIT School of Computing
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Introduction to OS

An Operating System (OS) is an interface

between a computer user and computer
hardware.
PLD
An operating system is a software which
performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management,
process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.

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PLD

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 MIT School of Computing
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WHAT IS SOFTWARE
• It is collection of many programs
• Two types of software
PLD
-System Software: These program assist general user
application program.
-Ex: Operating System, Assembler.
-Application Software: These are the software
developed for the specific tasks.
-Ex: Adobe Reader, Media Player.
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Components of System Software
• Text Editors
• Loaders
• Assembler
• Macro Processor
• Compiler
• Debugger

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Text Editors
• Editor is a computer program that allows a user to
create and revise a document.
• Ex: Notepad, MS word, etc.
• It is a program in which the primary elements
being edited are character strings.
• A text editor is a type of program used for editing
plain text files.
• With the help of text editor you can write your
own program(ex- C program or java program)

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Loaders
• A loader is a program that takes object code as input and
prepares them for execution
• It initiates the execution.
• Functions are:
-Allocation: It allocates space for programs in main memory.
-Linking: If we have different modules in our program, then
loader links object modules with each other.
-Relocation: Adjusting all address dependent location.
-Loading: Physically loading the machine instructions and
data into main memory.

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Assembler
• Assembler is a translator which translates
assembly language program into machine
language.

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Macro Processor
• Macro allows a sequence of source language code
to be defined once and then referred many times.
• A macro processor takes a source with macro
definition and macro calls and replaces each
macro call with its body.

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Compiler
• It is a translator which converts the high level
language into low level language.
• Benefits of writing a program in a high level
language:
- Increases productivity: It is very easy to write a
program in a high level language.
- Machine independence: A program written in a
high level language is machine independent.

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Debugger
• It helps programmer for testing and debugging
programs.
• It provides some facilities:
- Setting breakpoint
- Displaying values of variables

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

What is an Application Software?

• The term “application software” refers to
software that performs specific functions for a
user.
PLD
• When a user interacts directly with a piece of
software, it is called application software.
• The sole purpose of application software is to
assist the user in doing specified tasks.
• Microsoft Word and Excel, as well as popular web
browsers like Firefox and Google Chrome, are
examples of application software.

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Functions of Application Software

Application software programs are created to help with a
wide range of tasks. Here are a few examples:
• Information and data management
• Management of documents (document exchange systems)
• Development of visuals and video
PLD
• Emails, text messaging, audio, and video conferencing,
and cooperation are all options.
• Management of accounting, finance, and payroll
• Management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)
• Management of a project
• Management of business processes
• Software for education (LMS and e-learning systems)
• Software for healthcare applications
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PLD

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Services
• Resource Management: The operating system
manages and allocates memory, CPU time, and other
hardware resources among the various programs and
processes running on the computer.
• Process Management: The operating system is
responsible for starting, PLD stopping, and managing
processes and programs. It also controls the scheduling of
processes and allocates resources to them.
• Memory Management: The operating system manages
the computer’s primary memory and provides
mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
• Security: The operating system provides a secure
environment for the user, applications, and data by
implementing security policies and mechanisms such as
access controls and encryption.
• Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources 24
 MIT School of Computing
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Services
• File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing
and managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and
manipulation of files and directories.
• Device Management: The operating system manages input/output
devices such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the
necessary drivers and interfaces to enable communication between the
devices and the computer.
• Networking: The operating system PLD provides networking capabilities such
as establishing and managing network connections, handling network
protocols, and sharing resources such as printers and files over a network.
• User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that
enables users to interact with the computer system. This can be a
Graphical User Interface (GUI), a Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a
combination of both.
• Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for
backing up data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or
disasters.
• Virtualization: The operating system provides virtualization capabilities
that allow multiple operating systems or applications to run on a single
physical machine. This can enable efficient use of resources and flexibility
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in managing workloads.
 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Goals of OS
• Convenience (user friendly)
• Efficiency
PLD
• Portability
• Reliability
• Scalability
• Robustness

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Objectives(Goals) of Operating Systems

Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system,
which are mentioned below.
• Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the
computer system more convenient to use in an efficient manner.
• User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive
with a more convenient interface for the users.
• Easy Access: To provide easy PLD
access to users for using
resources by acting as an intermediary between the hardware
and its users.
• Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a
computer in a better and faster way.
• Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using
which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
• Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing
of resources between the users and programs.
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Types of Operating
Systems (OS)

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Batch Operating System

• In the 1970s, Batch processing was very

popular. In this technique, similar types of jobs
were batched together and executed in time.
People were used to having a single computer
which was called a mainframe.
• In Batch operating system, access is given to
more than one person; they submit their
respective jobs to the system for the execution.
• The system put all of the jobs in a queue on the
basis of first come first serve and then executes
the jobs one by one. The users collect their
respective output when all the jobs get
executed.
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• Advantages of Batch OS
• The use of a resident monitor improves
computer efficiency as it eliminates CPU
time between two jobs.
• Disadvantages of Batch OS
• 1. Starvation 2. Not Interactive
• Batch processing suffers from
starvation.

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Multiprogramming Operating System

• Multiprogramming is an extension to
batch processing where the CPU is
always kept busy. Each process needs
two types of system time: CPU time and
IO time.
• In a multiprogramming environment,
when a process does its I/O, The CPU
can start the execution of other
processes. Therefore,
multiprogramming improves the
efficiency of the system.
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• Advantages of Multiprogramming OS
• Throughout the system, it increased as
the CPU always had one program to
execute.
• Response time can also be reduced.
• Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS
• Multiprogramming systems provide an
environment in which various systems
resources are used efficiently, but they
do not provide any user interaction with
the computer system. 35
Multiprocessing Operating System

• In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is

achieved. There are more than one
processors present in the system which
can execute more than one process at
the same time. This will increase the
throughput of the system.

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• Advantages of Multiprocessing operating
system:
• Increased reliability: Due to the
multiprocessing system, processing tasks can
be distributed among several processors. This
increases reliability as if one processor fails,
the task can be given to another processor for
completion.
• Increased throughout: As several processors
increase, more work can be done in less.
• Disadvantages of Multiprocessing
operating System
• Multiprocessing operating system is more
complex and sophisticated as it takes care of
multiple CPUs simultaneously.

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Multitasking Operating
System
• The multitasking operating system is a
logical extension of a multiprogramming
system that enables multiple programs
simultaneously. It allows a user to
perform more than one computer task
at the same time

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• Advantages of Multitasking operating
system
• This operating system is more suited to
supporting multiple users
simultaneously.
• The multitasking operating systems
have well-defined memory
management.
• Disadvantages of Multitasking operating
system
• The multiple processors are busier at
the same time to complete any task in a
multitasking environment, so the CPU
generates more heat.
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Network Operating System

• An Operating system, which includes

software and associated protocols to
communicate with other computers via
a network conveniently and cost-
effectively, is called Network Operating
System.

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• Advantages of Network Operating System
• In this type of operating system, network
traffic reduces due to the division between
clients and the server.
• This type of system is less expensive to set up
and maintain.
• Disadvantages of Network Operating System
• In this type of operating system, the failure of
any node in a system affects the whole
system.
• Security and performance are important
issues. So trained network administrators are
required for network administration.

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Real Time Operating
System
• In Real-Time Systems, each job carries a
certain deadline within which the job is
supposed to be completed, otherwise,
the huge loss will be there, or even if
the result is produced, it will be
completely useless.
• The Application of a Real-Time system
exists in the case of military
applications, if you want to drop a
missile, then the missile is supposed to
be dropped with a certain precision.
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• Advantages of Real-time operating system:
• Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time
applications under the real-time operating
system.
• In a Real-time operating system, the
maximum utilization of devices and systems.
• Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:
• Real-time operating systems are very costly
to develop.
• Real-time operating systems are very
complex and can consume critical CPU cycles.
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Time-Sharing Operating
System
• In the Time Sharing operating system, computer
resources are allocated in a time-dependent fashion
to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to
provide a large number of user's direct access to the
main computer. It is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. In time-sharing, the CPU is
switched among multiple programs given by
different users on a scheduled basis.
• A time-sharing operating system allows many users
to be served simultaneously, so sophisticated CPU
scheduling schemes and Input/output management
are required.
• Time-sharing operating systems are very difficult
and expensive to build.
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• Advantages of Time Sharing Operating System
• The time-sharing operating system provides
effective utilization and sharing of resources.
• This system reduces CPU idle and response time.
• Disadvantages of Time Sharing Operating System
• Data transmission rates are very high in
comparison to other methods.
• Security and integrity of user programs loaded in
memory and data need to be maintained as many
users access the system at the same time.

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Distributed Operating
System
• The Distributed Operating system is not
installed on a single machine, it is
divided into parts, and these parts are
loaded on different machines. A part of
the distributed Operating system is
installed on each machine to make their
communication possible. Distributed
Operating systems are much more
complex, large, and sophisticated than
Network operating systems because
they also have to take care of varying
networking protocols.
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• Advantages of Distributed Operating
System
• The distributed operating system
provides sharing of resources.
• This type of system is fault-tolerant.
• Disadvantages of Distributed Operating
System
• Protocol overhead can dominate
computation cost

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Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Operating-System Structure

1. SIMPLE STRUCTURE
2. MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE
PLD
3. LAYERED STRUCTURE
4. MICROKERNEL STRUCTURE

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The operating system can be implemented with the

help of various structures.
The structure of the OS depends mainly on how the
various standard components of the
operating system are interconnected and melded
into the kernel. PLD
A design known as an operating system enables
user application programs to communicate with the
machine’s hardware.
Given its complex design and need to be easy to use
and modify, the operating system should be
constructed with the utmost care.
A straightforward way to do this is to supernaturally
develop the operating system. These parts must
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each have unique inputs, outputs, and
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Simple structure
Such operating systems do not have well-
defined structures and are small, simple, and
limited.
The interfaces and levels of functionality are
PLD
not well separated. MS-DOS is an example of
such an operating system.
In MS-DOS, application programs are able to
access the basic I/O routines.
These types of operating systems cause the
entire system to crash if one of the user
programs fails.
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Layered structure
An OS can be broken into pieces and retain much more control over
the system. In this structure, the OS is broken into a number of layers
(levels).
The bottom layer (layer 0) is the hardware, and the topmost layer
(layer N) is the user interface.
These layers are so designed that each layer uses the functions of the
PLD
lower-level layers.
This simplifies the debugging process, if lower-level layers are
debugged and an error occurs during debugging, then the error must
be on that layer only, as the lower-level layers have already been
debugged.
The main disadvantage of this structure is that at each layer, the data
needs to be modified and passed on which adds overhead to the
system.
Moreover, careful planning of the layers is necessary, as a layer can
use only lower level layers. UNIX is an example of this structure.
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Micro-kernel
This structure designs the operating system by
removing all non-essential components from the
kernel and implementing them as system and user
programs.
This resultsfails, in a smaller kernel called the
micro-kernel. Advantages PLD
of this structure are that
all new services need to be added to user space and
does not require the kernel to be modified.
Thus it is more secure and reliable as if a service
fails, then rest of the operating system remains
untouched. Mac OS is an example of this type of OS.

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Monolithic
The monolithic operating system controls all aspects of the
operating system's operation, including file management,
memory management, device management, and operational
operations.
The core of an operating system for computers is called the
kernel (OS). All other System components are provided with
PLD
fundamental services by the kernel.
The operating system and the hardware use it as their main
interface. When an operating system is built into a single piece
of hardware, such as a keyboard or mouse, the kernel can
directly access all of its resources.
The monolithic operating system is often referred to as the
monolithic kernel. Multiple programming techniques such as
batch processing and time-sharing increase a processor's
usability.
Working on top of the operating system and under complete
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command of all hardware, the monolithic kernel performs the
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Operating-System Operations
• PROCESS MANAGEMENT
• MEMORY MANAGEMENT
• SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
• PROTECTION AND SECURITY

PLD

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

PROCESS MANAGEMENT
Process Management refers to
aligning processes with an
organization's strategic goals,
designing and implementing
process architectures,
establishing
PLD
process
measurement systems that align
with organizational goals, and
educating and organizing
managers so that they will
manage processes effectively.

SUMMARY

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Memory Management
Memory :
Memory is a device that is used to store data or programs on a
temporary or permanent basis for use
PLD in an electronic digital
computer.

Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating a

computer's main memory. It ensures that blocks of memory space are
properly managed and allocated so the operating system (OS),
applications and other running processes have the memory they need to
carry out their operations.

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PLD

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Storage Management : Storage Management is

defined as it refers to the
management of the data
storage equipment’s that are
used to store the user/computer
generated data. Hence it is a
tool or set of processes used by
an administrator to keep your
PLD data and storage equipment’s
safe.

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Storage Management : Storage management key

attributes: Storage management has
some key attribute which is generally used
to manage the storage capacity of the
system. These are given below:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Recoverability
4. Capacity
PLD

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PROTECTION AND SECURITY

WHAT YOU EXPECT FROM YOUR OS AS USER ??

PLD

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PROTECTION AND SECURITY

• Protection is a method used in operating systems that
manages threats within the system to maintain the proper
functioning of the system.

• Security is a method used in operating systems that handles

the threats from outside of thePLD
system to maintain the proper
functioning of the system.

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OS SECURITY ISSUES

PLD

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Operating-System Service
An operating system executes programs and makes the process of solving
them easier. It also makes the computer system easier to use and helps
the user use the computer hardware efficiently. Apart from these, it also
provides an array of services both to the users and the programs.

1. User Interface
PLD
An interface is required to communicate with the user. Then it can either be a
Command Line Interface or a Graphical User Interface.

As for the first two, Command Line Interface commonly uses text commands input by
the users to interact with the system. These commands can also be given using a
terminal emulator, or remote shell client.
A Graphical User Interface (GUI) allows users to interact with the computer system or
any other computer-controlled device.

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2. Program Execution 3. File System Manipulation

The OS loads a program into
memory and then executes A program is read and then written in the
that form of directories and files. These files
program. It also makes sure can be stored on the storage disk for the
that once started that long term. The OS allows the users to
program can end its create and delete files, duplicate these
execution, either normally or files, and search files and their information
forcefully. or properties.
4. I/O Operations
The major steps during PLD
program management are: I/O operations are required during the
• Loading a program into execution of a program. To maintain efficiency
memory. and protection of the program, users cannot
directly govern the I/O devices instead the OS
• Executing the program. allows to read or write operations with any file
• Making sure the program using the I/O devices and also allows access to
completes its execution. any required I/O device when required.
• Providing a mechanism for:
1. process synchronization.
[Link] systems
process communication.
3. deadlock handling.
Processes need to swap information among themselves. These processes can be
from the same computer system or different computer systems as long as they are
connected through communication lines in a network.
This can be done with the help of OS support using shared memory or74message
passing. The OS also manages routing, connection strategies, and the problem of
 MIT School of Computing
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A user interface
User Operating-System Interface (UI) refers to the part
of an operating
system, program, or
device that allows a
user to enter and
receive information. A
text-based user
interface (see the
PLD image to the left)
displays text, and its
commands are usually
typed on a command
line using a keyboard.

TEXT USER INTERFACE (TUI)

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

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A system call is a way for a user program to

SYSTEM CALL: interface with the operating system. The program
requests several services, and the OS responds by
invoking a series of system calls to satisfy the
request. A system call can be written in assembly
language or a high-level language like C or Pascal.
System calls are predefined functions that the
operating system may directly invoke if a high-level
How are system calls made?
language is used.

Below are some examples of how a system call PLD

varies from a user function.

1. A system call function may create and use kernel processes to execute
the asynchronous processing.
2. A system call has greater authority than a standard subroutine. A
system call with kernel-mode privilege executes in the kernel
protection domain.
3. System calls are not permitted to use shared libraries or any symbols
that are not present in the kernel protection domain.
4. The code and data for system calls are stored in global kernel memory.

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Types of System Calls

[Link] Control
[Link] Management
[Link] Management
[Link] Maintenance
[Link]

PLD

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Process Control
Process control is the system call that is used to direct the processes. Some process
control examples include creating, load, abort, end, execute, process, terminate the
process, etc.

File Management
File management is a system call that is used to handle the files. Some file
management examples include creating files, delete files, open, close, read, write, etc.

Device Management PLD

Device management is a system call that is used to deal with devices. Some examples
of device management include read, device, write, get device attributes, release device,
etc.

Information Maintenance
Information maintenance is a system call that is used to maintain information. There are
some examples of information maintenance, including getting system data, set time or
date, get time or date, set system data, etc.

Communication
Communication is a system call that is used for communication. There are
some examples of communication, including create, delete communication
connections, send, receive messages, etc.
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System Programs
System Programming can be defined as the
act of building Systems Software using System
Programming Languages. According to
Computer Hierarchy, one which comes at last is
Hardware. Then it is Operating System, System
Programs, and finally Application Programs.
Program Development and Execution can be
done conveniently in System Programs. Some of
the System Programs are simply user interfaces,PLD
others are complex. It traditionally lies between
the user interface and system calls.

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SYSTEM PROGRAMS
System programs communicate and coordinate the activities and
functions of hardware and software of a system and also
controls the operations of the hardware.

Some examples of system

programs are operating system,
networking
PLD system, web site
server, data backup server etc

The most common types of system

software are operating systems,
device drivers, middleware, utilities,
and programming language
interpreters.

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Operating-System Design and Implementation

User Goals
There is no specific way to design an
The operating system should be
operating system as it is a highly convenient, easy to use, reliable, safe and
creative task. However, there are fast according to the users. However, these
general software principles that are specifications are not very useful as there
is no set method to achieve these goals.
applicable to all operating systems.
PLD
System Goals

The operating system

should be easy to design,
implement and maintain.
These are specifications
required by those who
create, maintain and
operate the operating
system. But there is not
specific method to achieve
these goals as well. 81
 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Operating-System Design and Implementation

The Various Design Issues

Efficiency
Robustness PLD
Flexibility
Portability
Security
Compatibility

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

VIRTUAL MACHINE

PLD

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

VIRTUAL MACHINE
Virtual Machine can be defined
as an emulation of the computer
systems in computing.

Virtual Machine is based on

PLD
computer architectures.

It also gives the functionality of

physical computers.

The implementation of VM may

consider …
specialized software, hardware,
or a combination of both.
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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Virtual Machines
A Virtual Machine (VM) is a compute resource that uses
software instead of a physical computer to run programs and
deploy apps. One or more virtual “guest” machines run on a
physical “host” machine.
PLD

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Explain Computer-System Organization with suitable diagram.
2. Enlist and explain different types of system software
3. Enlist and explain different types of Application software
4. Define OS and Explain Functions of Operating Systems.
5. What is virtual Machine and Explain it.
6. What is System Call? What are its different [Link]
7. Elaborate Operating System layered Architecture.
8. List and Explain different operation performed by operating system.
9. Differentiate between system software and Application Software
10. Draw neat diagram and explain in detail computer system Architecture
11. Explain operating system structures?
[Link] is Operating System? Describe operating system architecture with suitable example
13. Explain operating system Design issues.
14. Write difference between Monolithic kernel and Micro kernel.
15. Brief User and Operating System Interface in detail.
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