GENE STRUCTURE AND

REGULATION
PUTTING IT INTO PERSPECTIVE
Chromosomes
• Chromosomes are sections of
DNA wrapped tightly around
specific proteins called
histones.

• Therefore, chromosomes also

contain genes.

• DNA exists as chromatin

(uncoiled strands of DNA and
histones) for most of its time in
the cell but will become
condensed into its chromosome
form prior to cell division.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 DNA is a double stranded polymer
molecule of nucleotides.

 DNA contains the genetic

information and instructions of an
organisms body.

 Genetic information is in the form of

genes which are specific nucleotide
sequences along a strand of DNA.
Gene Structure
A gene consists of a particular
part of a double-helical molecule
of DNA.
◦ Template strand: one of the two
chains that contains the information
present in a particular gene.
GENE SEQUENCING
When the order of the nucleotides in a
gene is identified, the gene is said to
be ‘sequenced’.
The order in many genes from animals,
plants and bacteria has been identifies
and data continues to be added.
In all organisms the genes are built in
the same ‘alphabet’ of four letters.
Because of this we can compare DNA
from different organisms.
 COMPARING DNA FROM
DIFFERENT ORGANISMS

 Different
genetic instructions within and
between species is due to different nucleotide
sequences in the genes
THE GENETIC CODE
The genetic code in the DNA of
protein-encoding genes typically
contains information for joining
amino acids to form polypeptides.
By encoding the sets of
instructions on how to make the
various types of proteins, genes
control the structure and the
biochemical and physiological
functioning of an organism.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE
GENETIC CODE…
 Pieces of information in the genetic code consist of
triplets or three base sequences (TCA in DNA, or UGT in
mRNA)
 The code is non-overlapping. So a fragment of DNA
consisting of 12 bases contains four pieces of
information or instructions.
 The code is essentially the same in bacteria, in plants
and in animals – it is said to be universal.
 The code is said to be redundant because, in many
cases, more than one triplet of bases codes for one
particular amino acid.
 The information encoded in DNA is the set of instructions
to assemble amino acid subunits into polypeptides.
 The information in the DNA template strand also
includes a START instruction (TAC) and three stop
instructions (ATT, ATC or ACT).
 A CLOSER LOOK AT A
GENE
The part of a gene that contains the coded
information for making a protein is called the
coding region of a gene.
The regions either side of the gene are called
the flanking regions.
The flanking region before the gene is called
the upstream region and the downstream
region is found at the end of the coding
region.
THE CODING REGION
The coding region of a gene is the
segment of DNA double helix that
includes the DNA template strand,
which encodes the information that
will later be translated into the amino
acid sequence of a polypeptide.
This region of a DNA template strand
beginswith a start signal (TAC) and,
some distance away, there is a stop
signal (ATT or ATC or ACT).
 UPSTREAM REGION
 Upstream sequences are invariably found in all organisms. It
is reasonable to suggest that these upstream sequences
serve an important function since they have been
maintained during evolution.
 If upstream sequences are altered by mutation, the activity
of the coding region of the gene may be reduced or even
become inactive.
 The upstream region includes segments of DNA to which
hormones can attach. The fact that some hormones can
bind to DNA provides one clue as to how hormones can
influence the action of genes.
 These observations support the conclusion that specific DNA
sequences upstream of the coding region of a gene initiate
transcription, the process by which the encoded information
in the DNA coding region is transcribed into mRNA.
 Promoters also act as sites where proteins called
transcription factors can bind and regulate the expression of
genes.
 DNA PROCESSES
Protein Synthesis: DNA Transcription
and Translation
DNA Processes
There are three DNA processes vital
for life.
DNA replication: DNA makes a copy
of itself with the help of enzymes.
DNA Transcription: DNA is
transcribed into RNA with the help of
enzymes.
DNA Translation: The RNA is
translated into amino acids which
become a polypeptide chain to be
folded into a protein.
Important Vocabulary
Terms
DNA: sequence of DNA nucleotides which carry genetic
information.
RNA: sequence of RNA nucleotides transcribed from
DNA.
mRNA: messenger RNA, carrying the genetic information
from DNA to the ribosome.
tRNA: transfer RNA, molecule which carries the
appropriate amino acid over tot h ribosome.
rRNA: ribosomal RNA, which is found embedded in the
ribosomes.
Important Vocabulary
Terms
Enzyme: Specialized protein used to either build or break
down biomolecule polymers.
Polymerase: Specialized enzyme which builds polymers
from monomers using dehydration synthesis.
Codon: Three nucleotides which code for a specific
amino acid.
Anticodon: Compliments the codon and is carried by the
tRNA.
Amino Acid: monomer of proteins.

Polypeptide chain: Long chain of amino acids bonded

together which will be folded into a functional protein.
Protein Synthesis
 Protein Synthesis is the process by which the target segment
(gene) of a DNA strand is first transcribed into mRNA. The
mRNA strand is then translated into an amino acid chain
(polypeptide chain) which will later be folded into a protein.
 Protein synthesis has two parts; DNA transcription and DNA
translation.

Protein synthesis takes

place during the entire
lifetime of the cell.
 Protein Synthesis: Two
Steps
DNA transcription = Takes place in the
nucleus. During DNA transcription the RNA
polymerase reads the DNA and creates a
complimentary messenger RNA strand.
DNA translation = The mRNA leaves the
nucleus and goes to a ribosome. The
ribosome reads the messenger RNA and
builds a polypeptide chain. The
polypeptide chain will then enter the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to be folded
into a protein.
Protein Synthesis
Use the words from the word bank to fill in label the diagram
below. (One word is used twice.)

Cytoplasm Nucleus mRNA

Amino acids DNA ribosome
Protein Synthesis
Use the words from the word bank to fill in label the diagram
below. (One word is used twice.)

Cytoplasm Nucleus mRNA

Amino acids DNA ribosome
Movement of mRNA
In eukaryotic cells,
the two main steps
in protein synthesis
occur in separate
compartments:
transcription in the
nucleus and
translation in the
cytoplasm. Ribosomes
mRNA moves out of mRNA
the nucleus, to the
cytoplasm, through
pores in
the nuclear
membrane.
In prokaryotic cells,
there is no nucleus,
and the chromosome
is in direct contact
with the cytoplasm, Nuclear pore through
and protein which the mRNA passes
synthesis can begin into the cytoplasm
even while the DNA
is being transcribed.
Nucleus Cytoplasm
Protein Synthesis : DNA
Transcription
 DNA transcription is the process which
transcribes (rewrites) a specific gene (a
sequence of DNA) into messenger RNA (mRNA)
using mRNA polymerase.
 DNA transcription takes place in the nucleus.
Protein Synthesis : DNA
Transcription

 RNA polymerase is the enzyme which unwinds the DNA,

reads the DNA, and then creates a mRNA molecule
which is complimentary to the DNA sequence.
 DNA Adenine = mRNA Uracil
 DNA Thymine = mRNA Adenine
 DNA Cytosine = mRNA Guanine
 DNA Guanine = mRNA Cytosine
Protein Synthesis : DNA
Transcription

RNA polymerase attaches to a specific promotor sequence of DNA and continues adding free
nucleotides until it gets to a termination sequence where it then detaches.
Only one gene is transcribed by a single RNA polymerase at a time.
Sometimes there are multiple locations on a DNA strand where RNA polymerases are transcribing
multiple different genes.
Unlike DNA Polymerase, RNA polymerase does not need a primer.

Like DNA Polymerase, RNA polymerase can only synthesize in the 5’ to 3’ direction.

The RNA polymerase transcribes the gene while connected to the antisense (template) DNA strand. By
using the antisense (template) DNA strand a RNA version of the sense (coding) DNA strand is made. The
sense (coding) DNA strand is the functional gene.
Once the RNA transcription is complete the newly synthesized RNA polymer is called messenger RNA.
 Transcription can be divided into 3 main
stages…
1. Initiation
 Each gene has a promoter region which serves as the
transcription start point.

 The promoter region in eukaryotes is a sequence several

nucleotides long rich in A’s (adenine) and T’s (thymine). It is
referred to as the ‘TATA Box’.

 Transcriptionstarts by RNA Polymerase attaching to the

promoter region.

 Once the polymerase is firmly attached to the promoter DNA,

the two DNA strands unwind there, and the enzyme starts
transcribing the template strand.
 Transcription can be divided into 3 main
stages…
2. Elongation
 As RNA polymerase moves along the coding region of DNA, it continues to
untwist the double helix, exposing about 10 to 20 DNA bases at a time.

 RNA Polymerase continually adds the complimentary RNA nucleotides to the

3' end of the growing mRNA molecule.

 In the wake of this advancing wave of RNA synthesis, the new RNA molecule
peels away from its DNA template and the DNA double helix re-forms.

 Transcription progresses at a rate of about 40 nucleotides per second in

eukaryotes.
 Transcription can be divided into 3 main
stages…
3. Termination
 Transcription continues until RNA Polymerase meets a
termination signal on the DNA.

 Shorty after reaching the termination signal the mRNA transcript

is cut free and released.

 The RNA Polymerase also eventually detaches from the DNA.

Pre-messenger RNA
The primary product of
transcription is a single stranded
molecule, called pre-mRNA.
The base sequence in the pre-
mRNA molecule is
complementary to the base
sequence of the DNA of the
template strand.
It needs to undergo a process
called post-transcription
 Introns and Exons
 The coding region of a gene is called an exon and until a discovery in 1977
this coding region was thought to be continuous.

Q. what is meant by the term ‘coding region’?

 However, from this discovery it is now known that coding regions of DNA are
not continuous, but are ‘interrupted’ by non-coding regions of DNA called
Introns.

 Introns do not code for proteins.

Q. If the interrupted rhyme below were thought of as a gene, how many

exons and how many introns would it contain?

‘Hey, diddle diddle the cat and the fid HERE IS AN INTERRUPTION dle, the cow
jumped over the AND HERE IS ANOTHER INTERRUPTION moon. The little dog
laughed to see such fun and the dish HERE’S ANOTHER ran away with the spoon’.

RNA Processing
The mRNA produced through transcription is referred to as pre-
mRNA.
 As it is completely complimentary to the template strand, pre-RNA
also contains coding and non-coding regions (exons and introns).
 The pre-mRNA is altered after it has been transcribed, a process
known as post-transcription modification.
 Through this process the introns are removed and the exons are
spliced together.
 The final mRNA molecule is chemically capped at the 5’ end and a
poly-A tail is added to produce the operational mRNA that will
move across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm carrying
with it a copy of the information from the DNA template.
How is pre-mRNA splicing carried out?

 A short nucleotide sequence at each

end of an intron serves as the signal for
mRNA splicing.

 Particles called small nuclear

ribonucleoproteins, abbreviated
snRNPs (pronounced “snurps"),
recognize these splice sites. 5’ GU ,
3’AG

 Several different snRNPs join with

additional proteins to form an even
larger assembly called a spliceosome.

 The spliceosome interacts with certain

sites along an intron, releasing the
intron and joining together the two
exons that flanked the intron.

Q. Why do you think spliceosomes are able

to attach to mRNA?
 Alternative Splicing of pre-
mRNA
The human genome contains only about
21,000 genes. (Relatively small)
Research shows that one gene can be
regulated in different ways so that it can
produce more than one protein.
◦ One gene could produce one protein at one
stage of development, but a different protein
at another stage of development.
◦ One gene could produce a particular protein
in one tissue, but a different protein in
another tissue.
But how do they do this??
Alternative Splicing of pre-
mRNA
Alternative splicing: involves
exon juggling, where different
exons are combined to form
several kinds of mRNA, each with
a different base sequence.
Alternative Splicing of pre-
mRNA
Alternative splicing means that
the number of proteins from the
genetic instructions (genes) in a
genome is far greater than the
number of genes.
Discussion Questions
Why does DNA have to be
transcribed into RNA instead of
just leaving the nucleus itself?
What might make RNA better
suited than DNA for this job?
Why do you think introns, the
sequences of the gene that do
not code for anything, exist in the
genome? Could they possibly add
to genetic variation?
 mRNA
Q. Label each end of the mRNA strand as either 5’ or 3’.

Q. RNA Polymerase will add free RNA nucleotides to the ___’ end of the growing mRNA strand.

Q. What is the relationship between the nucleotide sequence on the template strand and the nucleotide
sequence on the mRNA strand?

Q. Is the mRNA strand complementary or identical to the coding strand?

Q. Every group of three nucleotides along the template strand are referred to as ‘triplets’. For each
triplet, the complementary three nucleotides on the mRNA strand are referred to as ___________.

Q. In this image the template strand is shown as the upper strand of this DNA double helix. Does this
mean this will be the template strand for all strands of mRNA transcribed along this piece of DNA?

Q. Identify 3 differences which exist between a DNA and RNA molecule.

Transcription
Create a flowchart showing the
steps of Transcription
Protein Synthesis : DNA
Translation
DNA translation is the process where
the mRNA binds to the ribosome in
order to synthesise a protein which is
the physical manifestation of a gene.

3 parts of DNA translation

◦ Initiation
◦ Elongation
◦ Termination

 (Remember: Each codon is 3 nucleotides long and codes for 1 amino acid.)
Translation
Translation is the
process of building a
polypeptide chain from
amino acids, guided by
the sequence of codons
on the mRNA.
Structures involved in The speckled appearance of the rough

translation: endoplasmic reticulum is the result of

ribosomes bound to the membrane
Messenger RNA molecules (mRNA) surface.
carries
the code from the DNA that will be
translated mRNA
into an amino acid sequence.
Transfer RNA molecules (tRNA)
transport amino acids to their correct
position on the mRNA strand.
Ribosomes provide the environment for Ribosomes
tRNA attachment and amino acid linkage.
tRNA
Amino acids from which the
polypeptides
are constructed. Amino acids
But first, lets have a closer look
at tRNA…
 tRNA is a carrier molecule (76
nucleotides long) that brings
amino acids to ribosomes
during translation.

 At one end of a tRNA molecule

is a region which attaches to
one specific amino acid.

 An enzyme, amino acyl tRNA

synthetase, catalyses the
linking of each amino acid to its
specific tRNA carrier.

 At the other end of each tRNA

molecule are three bases that
make up an anti-codon.
 Genes and Proteins
Functional
protein

This polypeptide chain This polypeptide chain

forms one part of the forms the other part of
functional protein. the functional protein.

Polypeptide chain Polypeptide chain

TAC on the Amino acids
template
DNA strand Protein synthesis:
A triplet transcription and
codes for one translation
amino acid

START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet STOP START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet STOP
5' 3'
DNA
Gene Gene
Transcription unit Three nucleotides
make up a triplet

In models of
nucleic acids,
nucleotides are
denoted by their
Nucleotide
base letter.
A closer look at ribosomes…
 Ribosomes facilitate the specific
coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA
codons during protein synthesis.

 A ribosome is made up of two subunits,

called the large and small subunits.
Each subunit is composed of rRNA and
proteins.

 In addition to a binding site for mRNA,

each ribosome has three binding sites
for tRNA.

◦ The P site (peptidyl tRNA site) holds

the tRNA carrying the growing
polypeptide chain.

◦ The A site (aminoacyl-tRNA site)

holds the tRNA carrying the next
amino acid to be added to the chain.

◦ Discharged tRNAs leave the

ribosome from the E site (exit site).
DNA Translation: INITIATION
Initiation:The first codon on the mRNA
pairs up with the anticodon from the
tRNA and the ribosome complex comes
together.
The first codon always codes for
methionine (AUG – start codon) in every
organism.
Translation: Initiation
The first initiation stage of translation brings together mRNA, a
tRNA bearing the first amino acid of a polypeptide, and the two
ribosomal subunits.

The small ribosomal sub-unit attaches to a specific nucleotide sequence on the

mRNA strand just ‘upstream’ the initiation codon (AUG) where translation will
start. The initiator tRNA, carrying methionine, attaches to the initiator codon.

The large ribosomal sub-unit binds to complete the protein-synthesizing

complex. Initiator
tRNA
Activated
Thr-tRNA

Small ribosomal
unit attaches

Large ribosomal unit attaches

to form a functional ribosomal
protein-synthesizing complex

mRNA

P A
site site Ribosomes move in this direction
Ribosome
DNA Translation: ELONGATION
Elongation: Additional tRNA line up to the
mRNA being held by the ribosome. The
amino acids being carried by the tRNA
form peptide bonds with previous amino
acids creating a long chain of amino acids
called a polypeptide chain.
 Translation: Elongation
In the elongation stage of translation, amino acids are added one
by one by tRNAs as the ribosome moves along the mRNA. There
are three steps:
The correct tRNA binds to the A site on the ribosome.

A peptide bond forms between adjacent amino acids.

The tRNA at the P site is released. The tRNA at the A site, now attached

to the growing polypeptide, moves to the P site and the ribosome

advances
by one codon. Activated
Tyr-tRNA

Growing polypeptide

Unloaded
Thr-tRNA

mRNA
5’
P A
site site
 DNA Translation: TERMINATION
 Termination: once the “stop” codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) at the end
of the mRNA is reached a tRNA carrying a “release factor” binds
to the last mRNA codon. The release factor causes the ribosome
complex to fall apart freeing the polypeptide chain to enter the
ER where it will be folded into a protein.
 The ribosome awaits a new mRNA while the used tRNA pick up
new amino acids. The used mRNA is recycled by being broken
down by enzymes.
 Translation: Termination
The final stage of protein synthesis
(termination) occurs when the
ribosome reaches a stop codon.
A release factor binds to the stop
codon and hydrolyzes the completed
polypeptide from the tRNA, releasing Release factor
the polypeptide from the ribosome.

Completed Completed
polypeptid polypeptid
e e is
released

The ribosomal units then fall

apart so that they can be
recycled.
Transcription and Translation

Polysomes
Protein Synthesis: DNA
Translation
Inorder to determine which
amino acids a mRNA sequence
becomes you need to use a
codon chart.
 Protein Synthesis: DNA
Translation
In order to determine which
amino acids a mRNA sequence
becomes you need to use a
codon chart.
We will use mRNA codon: AUG

First go to the first column at

the far left, it represents the first
letter. Once you have found the
first letter of your codon you
have narrowed down the
amino acids to 16.
 Protein Synthesis: DNA
Translation
In order to determine which
amino acids a mRNA sequence
becomes you need to use a
codon chart.
We will use mRNA
codon: AUG

Look across the top for

your second letter.
Once you locate it,
follow it down to the
area where your first
letter is. Now you have
narrowed your target
amino acids down to
four.
 Protein Synthesis: DNA
Translation
In order to determine which
amino acids a mRNA sequence
becomes you need to use a
codon chart.
We will use mRNA
codon: AUG

Locate the third letter

on the far right and
follow it across taking
care you are in the
same row as the first
letter. You have now
located your target
amino acid.
Protein Synthesis:
DNA Translation Example

DNA template: ATG GTC CCA

GAG becomes . . .
 mRNA: UAC CAG GGU
CUC
Amino acids: TYR GLU GLY
LEU
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS SUMMARY
 DNA is transcribed into
mRNA, mRNA leaves the
nucleus and connects to a
ribosome.
 The ribosome “reads” the
mRNA and connects the
appropriate tRNA. The tRNA
is carrying the amino acid
which matches the mRNA.
 A polypeptide chain is
created which will be folded
into a protein once it enters
the ER.
 (tRNA has anticodons which
are complimentary to
mRNA)
 CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION
 An organism’s DNA encodes all of
the RNA and protein molecules that
are needed to make its cells.
 Yet a complete description of the
DNA sequence of an organism does
not enable us to reconstruct the
organism.
We need to know how the elements
in the DNA sequence work together
to make the organism.
 CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION
 In
cell biology, the question comes down to
gene expression.
◦ Even the simplest single-celled bacterium can use
its genes selectively – for example. Switching
genes on and off to make the enzymes needed to
digest whatever food sources are available.
◦ Over the course of embryonic development, a
fertilized egg cell gives rise to many cell types that
differ dramatically in both structure and function.
 We know that nearly all the cells of
multicellular organism contain the same
genome.
 Cell differentiation is instead achieved by
changes in gene expressions.
CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION –
DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS OF GENES

Structural genes: genes that produce

proteins that become part of the
structure and the functioning of the
organism.
Regulator genes: produce proteins
that control the action of other genes.
◦ Regulator genes and their actions
determine whether other genes are
active (on) or not (off) and, if active, the
rate at which their products are made.
 CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION
Hundreds of different cell types carry out a range of
specialized functions that depend upon genes that are only
switched on in that cell type.
 The different cell types of a multicellular organism
contain the same DNA.
 Different cells types produce different sets of proteins.
 A cell can change the expression of its genes in response
to external signals.
◦ If a liver cell is exposed to glucocorticoid hormone, the production of
several specific proteins is dramatically increased.
 Gene expression can be regulated at many of the steps in
the pathway from DNA to RNA to Protein.
◦ Controlling when and how often a given gene is transcribed.
◦ Controlling how an RNA transcript is spliced or otherwise processed.
◦ Selecting which mRNAs are exported from the nucleus to the cytosol
◦ Selectively degrading certain mRNA molecules
◦ Selecting which mRNAs are translated by ribosomes.
◦ Selectively activating or inactivating proteins after they are made.
CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION
 REGULATOR GENES
Regulator genes switch other genes
‘on’ or ‘off’ by producing proteins
that act in one of two different ways.
Some proteins, known as DNA binding
proteins, bind to regions of nuclear DNA
near genes and directly switch these
genes on or off.
Some proteins bind to receptors on the
membrane of cells in their target tissue
and trigger a series of intracellular
reactions that switch genes on or off;
these are signaling proteins.
REGULATOR GENES
GENE REGULATION IN BACTERIA
In the 1960’s Jacques Monod and
Francois Jacob made a significant
discovery – they were the first to
document a gene regulation system.
◦ Rather than producing the same
enzymes all the time, E.coli produced
enzymes only when needed.
◦ They founs that E.coli produced the
enzymes needed to metabolise the
sugar lactose only when lactose was
present and glucose was not available.
GENE REGULATION IN BACTERIA
They discovered how the activity of
structural genes that encoded for
particular enzymes were regulated by
other genes known as regulator genes.
They introduces the term:
◦ OPERON: to describe a group of linked
structural genes with a common promoter and
operator, that is transcribed as a sing unit.
◦ The expression of operons is controlled by
regulator genes that produce repressor
proteins.
◦ Since the discovery of the lac operon in
bacteria, other operons have been identified.
 The lac operon

 The lac operon consists of:

◦ Three structural genes concerned with the metabolism of lactose
as follows:
 lac Z: encodes for the enzyme galactosidase, which breaks down lactose
into glucose and galactose.
 lac Y: encodes the enzyme permease, which enables lactose to enter cells.
 lac A: encodes the enzyme acetyltransferase, which also has a role.
◦ A promoter (Plac): the promoter is a short DNA segment where RNA
polymerase can attach and start transcription of the three
downstream lac genes. The three lac genes are transcribed as a
single entity with only long mRNA transcript being produced.
◦ A operator (O): an operator is a short DNA segment that provides a
binding site for a repressor. This operon is controlled by a regulator
gene as follows:
◦ The lac 1 gene (with its upstream promoter): the lac I gene is a
regulator gene that encodes a repressor. The repressor is a protein
that, when active down regulates gene expression by preventing
gene transcription.
 Lac Operon Animation
http://highered.mheducation.com
/sites/0072995246/student_view0
/chapter7/
the_lac_operon.html
The lac operon

When lactose
is absent:
The repressor
protein is active
and binds to the
operator,
physically
blocking the
RNA polymerase
from attaching
to the promoter.
Transcription
cannot start and
the lac operon is
repressed.
The lac operon
When lactose is
present:
Lactose binds to
the repressor
protein changing its
shape and
inactivating it so
that it cannot bind
to the operator.
This means that
RNA polymerase
can attach to the
promoter and start
transcription of the
structural genes.
E.g to produce
enzymes to break
down the lactose.
 The lac operon
The operon system enables the
bacteria to adapt rapidly to their
environment and use their
resources economically by
synthesising enzymes only when
they are needed.
◦ A just in time strategy, rather than
just-in-case
Questions
E. coli bacteria have a requirement for amino
acids, including tryptophan (trp). These
bacteria can take up trp from their
environment, but if it is not available, E. coli
can synthesise this amino acid. The five
genes involved in the synthesis of tryptophan
are part of a system called the trp operon.
(This is similar to the lac operon.)
a. As well as the five structural genes
needed to synthesise trp, what other DNA
segments form part of the trp operon?
Questions
b. Draw a rough line diagram showing the
essential components of the trp operon.
Consider a situation in which tryptophan is present
in the environment in which the E. coli bacteria are
growing.
c. Under these conditions, do the E. coli
need to synthesise trp?
d. Under these conditions, would you expect
that the trp operon would be repressed or
be activated?
If tryptophan is not available from the environment
in which the bacteria are growing, they will
manufacture it themselves.
Questions
e. Under these conditions, would you expect
that the trp operon would be repressed or be
active?
When the trp operon is repressed, the structural genes that
encode the various enzymes needed are silent and the trp
operon is said to be repressed.
f. Identify a possible means by which the trp
operon might be repressed.
When the trp operon is activated, the structural genes that
encode the various enzymes needed for its synthesis and
transport from cells are transcribed and translated and the
trp operon is said to be activated.
g. Identify a possible means by which the trp
operon might be activated.