Chapter 31:

MECHANICAL
ASSEMBLY
Chapter Contents

31.1 Threaded Fasteners 31.4 Other Mechanical Fastening Methods

31.1.1 Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
31.1.2 Other Threaded Fasteners 31.5 Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners
and Related Hardware
31.1.3 Stresses and Strengths in 31.6 Design for Assembly
Bolted Joints 31.6.1 General Principles of DFA
31.1.4 Tools and Methods for 31.6.2 Design for Automated
Threaded Fasteners Assembly

31.2 Rivets and Eyelets

31.3 Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

Chapter 31: Mechanical Assembly - Learning Outcomes

1. Understand different threaded fasteners, stresses in bolted joints, and the tools used.

2. Learn how rivets and eyelets function as permanent fasteners.

3. Grasp the concept of interference fits for secure part connections.

4. Explore alternative fastening methods like clips and adhesives.

5. Understand molding inserts and integral fasteners in components.

6. Apply Design for Assembly (DFA) principles to simplify and automate assembly processes.
Mechanical Assembly Overview

Mechanical assembly involves

various methods to attach parts, typically
using fasteners like screws, bolts, nuts
and rivets. Mechanical assembly is
commonly used in products like
automobiles, large and small appliances,
telephones, furniture, utensils, wearing
apparels,industrial equipments , etc.
Mechanical Assembly Overview
Fastening methods are divided into two
categories:
Allows disassembly Permanent joints

• Screw • Rivets
• Bolts and nuts
Advantages include ease of assembly,
disassembly (when applicable), simple
tooling, and quick installation. These
methods are useful for maintenance and
repairs, unlike permanent joining
techniques like welding.
 Mechanical Assembly Overview

Mechanical assembly is typically

performed by workers using minimal
specialized tools and can be completed
quickly. The simplicity of the process and
ease of inspection offer advantages both in
the factory and during field installation.
Large products that are too big for
transport when fully assembled, can be
shipped in smaller subassemblies and
assembled at the customer's site.
Mechanical Assembly Overview

Mechanical assembly methods are divided into

the following categories:

 Threaded fasteners
 Rivets
 Interference fits
 Other mechanical fastening methods
 Molded-in inserts and integral fasteners
 31.1 Threaded Fasteners
Threaded fasteners are individual hardware components
featuring external or internal threads, designed for assembling
parts. They typically allow for easy disassembly, making them
highly versatile. Threaded fasteners are the most essential type
of mechanical assembly, with the most common examples
being screws, bolts, and nuts.

Screws and bolts are externally threaded fasteners, with

screws typically used in blind threaded holes and bolts passing
through parts to be secured with a nut. Screws can be self-
tapping, forming threads during installation. Nuts have
internal threads that match bolts in diameter and pitch.
FIGURE 31.1 Typical
assemblies using
Threaded fasteners come in various sizes and standards. (a) bolt and nut, and
Metric sizes, like 4 × 0.7, indicate a 4.0-mm diameter and 0.7- (b) screw.
mm pitch, while U.S. sizes, such as 1/4-20, represent a 0.25-
inch diameter with 20 threads per inch.
31.1 Threaded Fasteners

ISO is the abbreviation for the International Standards Organization. ANSI is the abbreviation for the American National Standards Institute.
 31.1 Threaded Fasteners

The variety of threaded fasteners impacts tooling needs, as

different fasteners require specific tools. For instance, bolts
and screws come in various head styles (Figure 31.2),
necessitating different tools like screwdrivers.

Screws offer more configurations than bolts due to their

diverse uses, including machine screws, capscrews,
setscrews, and self-tapping screws. Machine screws are for
tapped holes and can be used with nuts. Capscrews are
similar but made of stronger materials. Setscrews, often used
for securing collars and gears to shafts (Figure 31.3a), come
in various designs (Figure 31.3b). Self-tapping screws
(Figure 31.4) form or cut threads in preexisting holes.
 31.1 Threaded Fasteners

Threaded fasteners are mostly made by cold forming,

though some are machined, which is more expensive.

Materials used include various steels, often plated or

coated for corrosion resistance (e.g., nickel, chromium,
zinc). When steel isn’t suitable, alternatives like
stainless steel, aluminum alloys, nickel alloys, and
plastics (for low-stress applications) are used.
 31.1.2 OTHER THREADED FASTENERS AND
RELATED HARDWARE
Threaded fasteners and related hardware include studs,
screw thread inserts, captive threaded fasteners, and
washers:
Studs are externally threaded fasteners without a head, used
to assemble two parts with nuts. They come threaded on one
or both ends (Figure 31.5).
Screw Thread Inserts are internally threaded plugs or coils
for unthreaded holes, providing strong threads in weaker
materials (e.g., plastic, wood). When the screw is inserted,
the insert expands to secure the assembly (Figure 31.6).
Captive Threaded Fasteners are permanently preassembled
to one part, using methods like welding or press fitting
(Figure 31.7).
Washers are thin rings used with fasteners to distribute
stress, provide support, increase tension, protect surfaces,
seal joints, and prevent unfastening (Figure 31.8).
 31.1.2 OTHER THREADED FASTENERS AND
RELATED HARDWARE
Threaded fasteners and related hardware include studs, screw
thread inserts, captive threaded fasteners, and washers:
Studs are externally threaded fasteners without a head, used to
assemble two parts with nuts. They come threaded on one or
both ends (Figure 31.5).
Screw Thread Inserts are internally threaded plugs or coils for
unthreaded holes, providing strong threads in weaker materials
(e.g., plastic, wood). When the screw is inserted, the insert
expands to secure the assembly (Figure 31.6).
Captive Threaded Fasteners are permanently preassembled to
one part, using methods like welding or press fitting (Figure
31.7).
Washers are thin rings used with fasteners to distribute stress,
provide support, increase tension, protect surfaces, seal joints,
and prevent unfastening (Figure 31.8).
 31.1.3 STRESSES AND STRENGTHS IN BOLTED
JOINTS
In a bolted or screwed joint, typical stresses include
tensile and shear forces (illustrated in Figure 31.9).

Tensile stress is applied to the bolt when it is

tightened, placing the bolt in tension and the parts
in compression.
Shear stress occurs when forces act in opposite
directions on the parts, affecting the bolt's cross
section.
Shear stresses also occur along the threads'
engagement with the nut, which can cause thread
stripping on both the bolt and the nut if the forces
are excessive.
 31.1.3 STRESSES AND STRENGTHS IN BOLTED
JOINTS
The strength of a threaded fastener is defined by two key
measures:
Tensile Strength: This is the maximum load the fastener
can handle before failure, as traditionally defined.
Proof Strength: This is the maximum tensile stress a
fastener can withstand without permanent deformation, roughly
equivalent to its yield strength.

During assembly, overtightening can exceed these strength

limits, leading to failures such as:
• Stripping of external threads (e.g., bolt or screw).
• Stripping of internal threads (e.g., nut).
• Bolt breakage due to excessive tensile stress.

Thread stripping (failures 1 and 2) results from shear failure

when the length of thread engagement is too short (less than
about 60% of the bolt diameter). Tensile failure (failure 3) is
more common and usually occurs at around 85% of the bolt's
rated tensile strength due to the combined tensile and torsion
stresses during tightening.
31.1.3 STRESSES AND STRENGTHS IN BOLTED
JOINTS
 31.1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS FOR THREADED
FASTENERS
The tools used to assemble threaded fasteners rotate and
twist them firmly. These tools range from simple hand-held
devices such as screwdrivers to advanced powered tools with
sensors for proper tightening. Because fastener heads differ in
size, it is important to match the tool's fastener size type.
Hand tools have fixed tips, whereas powered tools often use
replaceable bits and are driven by air, hydraulics, or
electricity.

The key to a correctly tightened fastening is to use the

appropriate amount of torque, which raises tension in the
fastener and compresses the items being joined. The link
between torque and tension (called preload) is critical for the
fastener to work properly. Designers frequently define the
preload, and torque can be estimated using parameters such as
the fastener's size, surface condition, and intended tension.
 31.1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS FOR THREADED
FASTENERS
There are several methods for applying the required
torque to fasteners:

1.Operator feel: This method relies on the user's

judgment and isn't very accurate, but it works for
most basic assemblies.

2.Torque wrenches: These tools measure the amount

of torque being applied while tightening the fastener.

3.Stall-motors: These motorized wrenches stop or

"stall" automatically when the correct torque is
reached.

4.Torque-turn tightening: The fastener is first

tightened to a low torque, then turned an additional
specified amount, like a quarter turn, for final
tightening.
31.1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS FOR THREADED
FASTENERS
 31.2. RIVETS AND EYELETS
Rivets are permanent fasteners known for high production rates, simplicity, and cost-
effectiveness. Despite being less common today in favor of threaded fasteners,
welding, and adhesives, they remain crucial in aerospace for joining skins to
structural parts.

A rivet is an unthreaded pin with a head that passes through aligned holes in parts and
is deformed (upset) on the opposite side to form a second head, locking the joint.
Riveting can be done by hammering or pressing, hot or cold, and rivets cannot be
removed without breaking a head. Rivets are classified by length, diameter, head
type, and geometry, with design tables to specify proper hole sizes.

Riveting methods include (1) impact (using a pneumatic hammer), (2) steady
compression, and (3) a combination of both. Equipment can be portable, manually
operated, or automated with drilling-riveting machines.

Eyelets are tubular fasteners with a flange, used in low-stress applications such as
automotive and apparel. They save on material and weight and are secured by curling
the extended end.
31.3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

Mechanical assembly methods often rely on interference between

mating parts to hold them together, achieved through techniques like
press fitting, shrink and expansion fits, snap fits, and retaining rings.

Press Fitting: In this method, two components have an interference fit,

where a pin slightly larger than the hole is pressed into it. Standard pins
are widely available and serve multiple purposes:

• Locating and locking parts to maintain alignment,

• Pivot points to allow rotational movement,
• Shear pins designed to break under heavy load to protect the
assembly.

Press fitting is also used to attach collars, gears, and pulleys to shafts.
31.3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

Interference fit assemblies use several pin types:

• Straight pins (1.6 to 25 mm) are basic, with

chamfered or square ends for easy fitting.
• Dowel pins are precise and hardened for alignment
in machinery.
• Taper pins have a slight taper, easily inserted and
removed for positioning.
• Grooved, knurled, and coiled pins increase grip
with special designs.
31.3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

Shrink and Expansion Fits use thermal changes to

secure parts. In shrink fitting, the outer part is heated
to expand; as it cools, it shrinks around the inner part.
Expansion fitting cools the inner part to contract it,
expanding as it warms for a secure fit. Common for
gears, pulleys, and sleeves, these methods use tools like
torches, furnaces, and liquid nitrogen.
 31.3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

Snap Fits: Snap fits join two parts by pressing them

together, causing temporary interference. As they
press, the parts elastically deform, then snap into
place, interlocking securely. They remain slightly
interlocked after assembly, preventing easy
disassembly. Advantages include self-aligning design,
no special tooling, and fast assembly. Originally
intended for robotics, snap fits are also easy for human
assembly.

Retaining Rings (Snap Rings): Retaining rings snap

into grooves on shafts or tubes, forming a shoulder to
hold parts in place. They come in external (shaft) and
internal (bore) types, made from hardened sheet metal
or wire. Special pliers are used to fit and release the
ring into the groove.
 31.4. Other Mechanical Fastening Methods

Several additional fastener-based mechanical assembly methods include

stitching, stapling, sewing, and cotter pins:

Stitching: Uses a stitching machine to form and drive U-shaped metal

stitches through materials. Ideal for thin parts in applications like sheet-
metal assembly, electrical connections, and packaging. It offers high-
speed operation and doesn’t require pre-drilled holes.

Stapling: Involves punching preformed U-shaped staples through

materials. Staples, loaded in strips, are applied with pneumatic guns.
Common in furniture, upholstery, and light-gauge assembly.

Sewing: Uses thread to create seams in flexible materials, widely

applied in garment manufacturing for cloth and leather.

Cotter Pins: These two-stem pins lock assemblies by inserting through

holes and splitting the legs. Used for securing parts to shafts.
 31.5. Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners

Permanent joints can be created by reshaping a part through

casting, molding, or forming.

Inserts in Moldings and Castings: Components are placed in a

mold before casting or molding, making them a permanent part
of the product. This is useful when the insert adds strength or
has a complex shape. Examples include threaded bushings,
studs, and electrical contacts.

Drawbacks:

• More complex mold design.

• Extra time for placing inserts, which can slow production.
• Harder to recycle if defects occur.

Despite these, inserts are often practical and cost-effective.

 31.5. Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners
Integral Fasteners: This method involves deforming parts
to interlock them, forming a mechanical joint, especially in
sheet-metal assembly. Types include:

• Lanced Tabs: Tabs are formed to attach wires or shafts

to sheet metal.
• Embossed Protrusions: Raised sections (bosses) are
flattened over another part to secure it.
• Seaming: Edges of metal parts are bent over each other
to create a seam; requires ductile metal.
• Beading: A tube is deformed inward around a smaller
part for a tight fit.
• Dimpling: Round indentations are made to hold an inner
part in place.

Crimping: Another technique, where one part’s edges are

deformed over another, commonly used to attach wires to
electrical terminals.
 31.6. Design for Assembly

Design for Assembly (DFA) focuses on reducing assembly costs, as

assembly is a major labor expense for many manufacturers. The main
principles are:

Minimize Parts: Design products with as few parts as possible.

Simplify Assembly: Make remaining parts easy to assemble.

Since assembly cost is mostly determined in the design phase, effective

DFA is crucial early on. Once designs are set, it’s difficult to reduce
assembly costs during manufacturing.

DFA principles mainly apply to mechanical assembly but are also

relevant to other joining methods. Research in DFA has grown due to
the rise of automated assembly, leading to two key areas of focus:
general DFA principles and design for automated assembly.
 31.6.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DFA

General principles for DFA (Design for Assembly) apply to both manual and automated assembly, aiming to simplify
design and reduce costs. Recommendations include:

• Minimize Parts: Use the fewest parts possible by combining functions into single components. For example, use a
plastic molded part instead of multiple sheet metal parts.

• Limit Threaded Fasteners: Reduce reliance on threaded fasteners; instead, use faster methods like snap fits,
retaining rings, or integral fasteners. Only use threaded fasteners when disassembly or adjustment is necessary.

• Standardize Fasteners: Use a limited variety of fastener sizes and styles to simplify ordering, reduce inventory,
make assembly easier, and minimize the need for multiple tools.

• Simplify Part Orientation: Design parts to be symmetrical or reduce asymmetry to avoid orientation issues,
making them easier to handle and insert (see Figure 31.19).

• Avoid Tangling Parts: Parts with hooks, holes, slots, or curls are prone to tangling, which complicates handling
for workers and can jam automatic feeders (see Figure 31.20).
31.6.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DFA
 31.6.2 DESIGN FOR AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY

Automated assembly requires specific design considerations that differ from manual assembly. Some
recommendations to make designs suitable for automation include:

Modular Design: Use modularity, where each module has a maximum of 12-13 parts, assembled around a base part.
This limits the complexity and increases system reliability.

Separate Component Handling: Avoid handling multiple components simultaneously. Instead, process components
at different stations for easier automated handling and fastening.

Minimize Access Directions: Design so that components can be added in the same direction, ideally from above.
This simplifies the assembly and reduces complexity.

Ensure High-Quality Components: Consistently high-quality components are essential to prevent jams and
downtime in automated systems.

Use Snap Fits: Snap fits are preferable over threaded fasteners for automated assembly. Parts are designed with
positive and negative features to allow simple insertion and secure fastening.
 END

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