Role of vitamins as

a cofactor

Submitted by Archa.R
1st MSc Biotechnology
Introduction
Vitamins are essential nutrients that play critical roles in
various biochemical reactions. Many vitamins serve as
cofactors, which are non-protein molecules that bind to
enzymes and facilitate catalysis. Cofactors enable
enzymes to perform specific chemical reactions, often
involving the transfer of electrons, atoms, or groups of
atoms. Cofactors can be classified into two main
categories . Coenzymes are the Organic molecules that
bind to enzymes and participate directly in chemical
reactions. Prosthetic groups are the Non-protein
molecules tightly bound to enzymes, often through
covalent bonds.
Vitamins as cofactors
Many vitamins, especially those from the B-complex group,
serve as precursors for coenzymes. These coenzymes
participate in a wide range of metabolic reactions
[Link] B1 (Thiamine)
TPP is an Essential Cofactor of Pyruvate Decarboxylase.
Pyruvate decarboxylase s contains the coenzyme
thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP; also called thiamin
diphosphate, ThDP). TPP, which is synthesized from
thiamine (vitamin B1) binds tightly but non covalently to
pyruvate decarboxylase
Figure. 1 pyruvate decarboxylase
operates
• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
(PDH): TPP is a cofactor for PDH,
which converts pyruvate, a product
of glycolysis, into acetyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric
acid cycle for further energy
production.
• * α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase
Complex (α-KGDH): TPP is also a
cofactor for α-KGDH, which
catalyzes the conversion of α-
ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA in
the citric acid cycle.
• * Transketolase: TPP is involved in
the pentose phosphate pathway,
which generates NADPH for
reductive biosynthesis and ribose-
2. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is
the cofactor. The conjugated ring system
of FAD can accept one or two electrons to
produce the stable radical (semiquinone)
FADH or the fully reduced (hydroquinone)
[Link] change in the electronic state
of the ring system on reduction is reflected
in a color change from brilliant yellow (in
FAD) to pale yellow (in FADH₂).The
metabolic function of FAD demand that
they undergo reversible reduction so that
they can accept electrons, pass them on to
other electron carriers, and thereby be
regenerated to participate in additional
cycles of oxidation and reduction
• Energy production: They are essential for the electron
transport chain, which is the final stage of cellular
respiration where energy is produced in the form of ATP.
• * Metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats: They help
break down these macronutrients into energy.
• * Metabolism of vitamin B6: Riboflavin is involved in the
conversion of vitamin B6 into its active form, pyridoxal 5'-
phosphate.
 chemical structure of FAD

[Link] B3 (niacin)
Some Cofactor are only transiently associated with a given enzyme molecule,
so that they function as cosubstrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP*) are examples of
cosubstrates . For instance, NAD is an obligatory oxidizing agent in the alcohol
dehydrogenase (ADH) reaction:
• * Energy production: NAD and NADP are essential for the
oxidation-reduction reactions that occur during cellular
respiration, which generates energy in the form of ATP.
• * Carbohydrate metabolism: NAD and NADP are involved in
the breakdown of carbohydrates, such as glucose, for energy
production.
• * Lipid metabolism: NAD and NADP are involved in the
synthesis and breakdown of fatty acids.
• * Protein metabolism: NAD and NADP are involved in the
synthesis and breakdown of amino acids, the building blocks
of proteins.
• * DNA repair: NAD is involved in the repair of damaged DNA.

• * Calcium signaling: NADP is involved in the release of

calcium from intracellular
• The structure and reaction of
NAD and NADP

4. Vitamin B5 ( pantothenic acid)

Vitamin B5, also known as pantothenic acid, plays a crucial
role in various metabolic processes as a precursor for
coenzyme A (CoA). CoA is a vital cofactor involved in numerous
biochemical reactions, particularly in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
• * Energy production: CoA is essential for the breakdown of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce energy. It
carries acetyl groups, which are the building blocks for
energy production in the mitochondria.
• * Fatty acid metabolism: CoA is involved in the synthesis and
breakdown of fatty acids, which are important for energy
storage and cell membrane structure.
• * Cholesterol synthesis: CoA is required for the synthesis of
cholesterol, which is a precursor for various hormones and
bile acids.
• * Neurotransmitter synthesis: CoA is involved in the
synthesis of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter important for
muscle contraction and memory function.
• * Red blood cell production: Vitamin B5 is necessary for the
production of red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout
the body.
CoA serves as a carrier of acyl groups, which are functional groups containing a carbonyl
group (C=O) bonded to an alkyl group. This acyl group transfer is essential for numerous
metabolic pathways, including: fatty acid metabolism, citric acid cycle, Acetylcholine
synthesis

chemical structure of Acetyl CoA

[Link] B6 (pyridoxine)
Vitamin B6 is a versatile nutrient that plays a crucial role in various
metabolic processes, primarily as a cofactor for enzymes involved in amino acid
metabolism. The most active form of vitamin B6 is pyridoxal 5'-phosphate
(PLP).Key Roles of Vitamin B6 as a Cofactor: Amino Acid Metabolism.
• Transamination - PLP facilitates the transfer of amino groups between amino
acids, a crucial step in protein metabolism and the synthesis of non-essential
amino acids.
• Decarboxylation: PLP removes carboxyl groups from amino acids, a step in
neurotransmitter synthesis and other metabolic pathways.
• * Synthesis of Heme: PLP is involved in the production of heme, the iron-
containing component of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells.
• * Glycogen Metabolism: PLP aids in the breakdown of glycogen, the storage
form of glucose, for energy release.
• * Lipid Metabolism: PLP participates in certain lipid synthesis and breakdown
reactions.
• * Neurotransmitter Synthesis: PLP is essential for the production of
neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA), which regulate mood, sleep, and nerve function.
Forms of pyridoxial-5’-phosphate
6. Vitamin B12 (cobalamine)
Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is a complex
water-soluble vitamin essential for various metabolic
processes. It serves as a cofactor for two key enzymes:
Methionine Synthase-This enzyme is responsible for
converting homocysteine to methionine, an essential amino
acid. Vitamin B12, in the form of methyl cobalamin, acts as a
methyl group donor, facilitating the transfer of a methyl group
from methyl tetrahydrofolate to homocysteine. Importance-
Methionine is crucial for the synthesis of S-
adenosylmethionine (SAM), a universal methyl donor involved
in various methylation reactions, including DNA methylation,
which is essential for gene [Link]-CoA
Mutase This enzyme catalyzes the isomerization of
methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA, an intermediate in the
citric acid cycle.
1 .Methionine synthase 2. Methylmalonyl-
CoA mutase
[Link] B9 (folic acid)
Vitamin B9, also known as folate or folic acid, is
essential for various metabolic processes. It functions as a
coenzyme in one-carbon metabolism, transferring single-
carbon units in the form of methyl groups .
Key Roles of Folate as a Cofactor:
• DNA Synthesis: Folate is crucial for the synthesis of
thymidine, a building block of DNA. A deficiency in folate
can lead to impaired DNA synthesis and cell division,
particularly in rapidly dividing cells like those in the bone
marrow.
• * Amino Acid Metabolism: Folate is involved in the
conversion of homocysteine to methionine, an essential
amino acid.
 Folate role in the Methionine
cycle
8. Vitamin k
Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for several
physiological functions, primarily as a cofactor for the
enzyme gamma-glutamyl carboxylase. This enzyme
catalyzes the post-translational modification of specific
proteins by adding a carboxyl group (COOH) to glutamate
residues. This modification, known as gamma-carboxylation,
is crucial for the function of these proteins.
Key Roles of Vitamin K as a Cofactor:
1. Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is essential for the activation of
several clotting factors, including factors II, VII, IX, and X.
carboxylation of these factors enables them to bind calcium
ions, which is necessary for their proper function in the
blood clotting cascade.
• Vitamin k cycle
8. Vitamin C
Vitamin C as a Cofactor in Collagen Synthesis
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a crucial cofactor for the
enzymes prolyl hydroxylase and lysis hydroxylase. These
enzymes are essential for the hydroxylation of specific
amino acids (proline and lysine) within collagen chains
Deficiencies
• Thiamine deficiency: Beriberi, characterized by
neurological and cardiovascular symptoms.
• * Riboflavin deficiency: Ariboflavinosis, leading to skin
and mouth problems..
• * Niacin deficiency: Pellagra, causing skin rashes,
digestive issues, and neurological disorders.
• * Vitamin B12 deficiency: Pernicious anemia, resulting
in fatigue, weakness, and neurological problems.
• * Folic acid deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia and
neural tube defects in developing fetuses.
Reference
• * Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2017).
Principles of Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman.
• * Voet, D., Voet, J. G., & Pratt, C. W. (2016).
Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular
Level. Wiley.
• * Bender, D. A. (2014). Vitamins in Health and Disease.
Taylor & Francis.
Thank you