Bacterial cells (Chapter Two)

Bacteriology I (MeLS-M3293) for MLS Students

By Temesgen W/medhin (MSc – Medical Microbiology)

Wolaita Sodo University CHSM

May, 2024

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 Introduction
 Microorganisms are divided into seven types: bacteria, archaea,
protozoa, algae, fungi, viruses, and multicellular parasites (helminthes ).
 Each type has a characteristic cellular composition, morphology, mean
of locomotion, and reproduction.
 Taxonomy is the science of classification, identification, and
nomenclature.
 For classification purposes, organisms are usually organized into
subspecies, species, genera, families, order, class, phylum and domain.
 Bacteriology is a branch of microbiology that is concerned with the
study of bacteria and its morphology, ecology, genetics and
biochemistry. And it involves the identification, classification, and
characterization of bacterial species.

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The difference b/n bacteria and other microorganisms

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Classification, Nomenclature and taxonomy of Bacteria

 Classification puts organisms into groups by looking at characteristics

(traits) they share.
 Carolus Linneaus: Invented binomial nomenclature, the 2-word
naming system we still use today to classify organisms Called “the
father of taxonomy.”
 Binomial Nomenclature: scientific name to microorganisms

Genus is capitalized; species is not; both are italicized

Examples: Escherichia coli (E. coli)
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 Traditionally, all prokaryotic cells
were called bacteria and were
classified in the prokaryotic
kingdom Monera. ... The prokaryotic
organisms that were formerly known
as bacteria were then divided into two
of these domains, Bacteria and
Archaea.
 In bacterial taxonomy, Group of
Species in to Genus (genera), Groups
of genera are collected into families
(sing, family), families into orders,
orders into classes, classes into phyla
(sing, phylum), and phyla into domain
(the highest rank or level).
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Cont….

 Species is the smallest, most specific group in classification

 A strain is a low-level taxonomic rank used at the intraspecific level

(within a species).

- When two clones of same species differ genetically and express

different characters are called Strains.

- Arises because of mutation.

- Denoted by capital letters followed by some numbers.

- E.g. E. coli O157:H7

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Methods for classification of Bacteria

 Bacteria can be classified in many ways.

• Morphological
• Anatomical
• Staining
• Motility
• Nutrition requirements
• Oxygen requirements
• Temperature Requirement
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 Morphological characters
 Size, Shape, and arrangements of the bacterial cell

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 Size of Bacteria

 Bacterial cells are about one-tenth the size of eukaryotic cells

and are typically 0.5–5.0 micrometres in length (1 micron or
micrometer is one thousandth of a millimeter) and varies from
0.1  to 16-18 .
 Most pathogenic bacteria measure from 0.1 to 10 .
 The other units of measurement of microorganisms are
millimicron (m ) or nanometer (nm) (one millionth of a
millimeter) and 1 Angstrom (Å) (one tenth of nanometer).
 Bacteria of medical importance
- 0.2 – 1.5 µm in diameter
- 3 – 5 µm in length
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Shapes & Arrangements of Bacteria
 Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their basic
shapes: spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma
(vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes).
• Cocci – spherical/ oval shaped major groups
• Bacilli – rod shaped
• Vibrios – comma shaped
• Spirilla – rigid spiral forms
• Spirochetes – flexible spiral forms
• Actinomycetes – branching filamentous bacteria
• Mycoplasmas – lack cell wall
 They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters.
 The arrangement of bacteria cell may be Paired (diplo), clusters
(staphylo) or Chains (strepto). 10
 Arrangement of bacteria: Cocci

Coccus

Cocci in pair – Diplococcus

Tetrad – groups of four

Cocci in chain - Streptococci

Cocci in cluster - Staphylococci Sarcina – groups of eight

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 Arrangement of bacteria: Bacilli

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 Other shapes of bacteria

Comma shaped
Spirilla

Spirochetes

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Fig. different bacterial arrangements
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Based on Anatomical features:

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 Based on Staining

(A) Gram stain:

1) Gram positive: after the gram stain organism which occur violet in color.
2) Gram negative: Which appear pink or red
(B)Acid fast stain:
1) Acid fast organism: after the ziehl – neelsen stain it will show pink in color
2) Non acid fast organism: after this stain organism will appear blue in color

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 Based on Motility
Motility Motility Type Examples

Tumbling motility Listeria

Gliding motility Mycoplasma

Stately motility Clostridium

Motile bacteria Darting motility Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter jejuni

Swarming motility Proteus spp. Clostridium tetani

Corkscrew Spirochete
motility
Non-motile
No motility Streptococci, K.pneumoniae & Y.pestis
bacteria 17
 Based on Nutrition requirements

1. Prototrophs: Those bacteria which gain energy from light.

2. Chemotrophs: Those bacteria gain energy from chemical compounds and cannot
carry out photosynthesis.
3. Autotrophs: bacteria which uses carbon dioxide as sole source of carbon to
prepare its own food.
4. Heterotrophs: bacteria which uses organic compound as carbon source and they
lack the ability to fix CO2.
 Most of the human pathogenic bacteria are heterotrophic in nature.
 Some heterotrophs are simple, because they have simple nutritional requirement.
 However there are some bacteria that require special nutrients for their growth;
known as fastidious heterotrophs.
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 Basis on Temperature Requirement

1.Psychrophiles: Bacteria that can grow at 0°C or below

2. Psychrotrops (facultative psychrophiles): bacteria that can grow
even at 0°C but optimum temperature for growth is (15-30)°C
3. Mesophiles: bacteria that can grow best between (25-40)o C but
optimum temperature for growth is 37C
Most of the human pathogens are mesophilic in nature. Eg: E. coli,
Salmonella, Klebsiella, Staphylococci.
4. Thermophiles: bacteria that can best grow above 45C.
5. Hyperthermophiles: bacteria that have optimum temperature of
growth above 80C.
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 Based on Oxygen Requirement

1. Obligate Aerobes: Require oxygen to live.

Eg: Pseudomonas, common nosocomial pathogen.
2. Facultative Anaerobes: Can use oxygen, but can grow in its absence.
Eg: E. coli, Staphylococcus, yeasts, and many intestinal bacteria.
3. Obligate Anaerobes: Cannot use oxygen and are harmed by the presence of toxic forms
of oxygen.
Eg: Clostridium bacteria that cause tetanus and botulism.
4. Aerotolerant Anaerobes: Cannot use oxygen, but tolerate its presence and can break
down toxic forms of oxygen.
Eg: Lactobacillus carries out fermentation regardless of oxygen presence.
5. Microaerophiles: Require oxygen, but at low concentrations and Sensitive to toxic
forms of oxygen. Eg: Campylobacter. 20
 Cells

 Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an

organism
 Based on the level of organization cells can be categorized in
to two:
1. Eukaryotic cells
2. Prokaryotic cells

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1. Eukaryotic cells
 EU means true and Karyote means nucleus
 The eukaryotic cell has a true membrane bound nucleus, usually
containing multiple chromosomes, a mitotic apparatus, a well defined
endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.
 Example Algae,Protozoa and Fungi
2. Prokaryotic cell
 Pro means primitive Karyote means nucleus.
 The prokaryotic cell possesses naked DNA with out associated basic
proteins, divides amitotically by binary fission and bounded by a semi
rigid cell wall.
 Example Bacteria, Cyanobacteria and Archaebacteria

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Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic cells

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Characteristics Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nuclear structure Circular DNA molecule not Complex of DNA and basic
covered with proteins proteins
Localization of Dense tangle of DNA in cytoplasm; no In nucleus surrounded by
nuclear structure nuclear membrane; nucleoid nuclear membrane

DNA Nucleoid and plasmids In nucleus and in mitochondria

Cytoplasm No mitochondria and no endoplasmic Mitochondria and endoplasmic

reticulum, 70S ribosomes reticulum, 80S ribosomes

Cell wall Usually rigid wall with murein layer; Present only in fungi: glucans,
exception: mycoplasmas mannans, chitin, chitosan,
cellulose
Reproduction Asexual, by binary transverse fission In most cases sexual, possibly
asexual

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General feature of bacterial cell

 The smallest free living microorganisms that are visible

only with the aid of microscope
 Bacteria represents the largest and diversified group of
mos that can exist as living cells
 They are able to carry out their own life processes:
growth, energy generation and reproduction independent
of other cells

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 Bacterial Cell
General property:
Typical prokaryotic cell:-
- (Pro -means primitive)
- ( Karyote - means nucleus)
Contain both DNA and RNA
Most grow in artificial media
Replicate by binary fission
Almost all contain rigid cell wall
 Are sensitive to antimicrobial agents

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 Anatomy of a Bacterial Cell

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Structure of Bacteria
Bacterial structure is considered at three levels.
1. Cell envelope proper:
Capsule, cell wall and cell membrane
2. Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope:
Mesosomes, ribosome, nuclear material, plasmid and
cytoplasmic granules.
3. Cellular element external to the cell envelope
(appendages) : Flagellum, Pilus

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 1. Cell Envelop
 A cell envelope consists of a capsule, cell wall and plasma
membrane
Cell wall: is the outermost component part.
 Cell wall is used:
- To Protects bacteria against lysis
- Allows them to grow over a wide range of osmotic pressures.
- It gives Rigidity to bacterial cells, which determines their
characteristic shape.
- The main constituent of bacterial cell wall is a chemically
complex polymer known as peptidoglycan.
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 Cell wall:
– a non-living secretion, composed of cellulose
– Multi layered structure and constitutes about 20% of the
bacterial dry weight
– Average thickness is 0.15-0.5 m
 Christian Gram recognized 2 different types of bacteria based on
their staining reaction.
 Gram-positive bacteria stain purple and have thick layers of
peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid.
 Gram-negative bacteria stain pink and have much thinner layer of
peptidoglycan covered with an outer lipid membrane.

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Chemical Composition of cell wall
• The major component of cell wall is peptidoglycan (PG)
• The rigidity of the cell wall is due to the presence of this
substance
• It consists of a polymer of disaccharides cross-linked by
short chains of amino acids (peptides). This molecule is a
type of peptidoglycan, which is called murein.
– peptidoglycan layer (murein) is a complex, interwoven
network that surrounds the entire cells and is composed of a
single covalently linked macromolecules.
– Found only in bacterial cell walls

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 CELL WALL
Outermost layer, encloses cytoplasm
1. Confers shape and rigidity
2. 10 - 25 nm thick)
3. Composed of complex polysaccharides
(peptidoglycan/ mucopeptide)
4. Carries bacterial antigens – important in virulence
& immunity
5. Chemical nature of the cell wall helps to divide
bacteria into two broad groups – Gram positive &
Gram negative
6. Gram +ve bacteria have simpler chemical nature
than Gram –ve bacteria.
7. Several antibiotics may interfere with cell wall
synthesis
e.g. Penicillin, Cephalosporins
Note: Mycoplasma: highly pleomosphic bacteria are
with out cell wall.
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 Gram positive cell wall

The Gram-positive cell wall is composed of a thick, multilayered

peptidoglycan sheath outside of the cytoplasmic membrane.
Teichoic acids are linked to and embedded in the peptidoglycan, and
lipoteichoic acids extend into the cytoplasmic membrane
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 Gram negative cell wall

The Gram-negative cell wall is composed of an outer membrane linked to thin, mainly single-
layered peptidoglycan by lipoproteins.
The peptidoglycan is located within the periplasmic space that is created between the outer
and inner membranes.
The outer membrane includes porins, which allow the passage of small hydrophilic molecules
across the membrane, and lipopolysaccharide molecules that extend into extracellular space.
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 Gram negative cell wall

 Periplasmic space = space between inner and outer

membrane.

 Gram-negative bacteria only have degradative enzymes

located in this area.

 Periplasmic enzymes act on the wide variety of substrates

which a GN bacterium encounters in nature to convert them
to molecules which are transportable into the cell.

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 Cell wall of Acid-fast bacteria

 Mycobacteria have an unusual cell wall, resulting in

their inability to be Gram-stained.
• These bacteria are said to be acid-fast.
• They resist de-colorization with acid-alcohol after being
stained with primary stain.

 This is due to the high concentration of lipids, called as

mycolic acids, in the cell wall.
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• Function of the cell wall
– To protect the cells from external noxae
– To withstand and maintain the osmotic pressure gradient
between the cell interior and the extracellular environment
(with internal pressures)
– To give the cell its outer form and to facilitate
communication with its surroundings
– Contain attachment site for phages

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• Bacteria with defective cell wall
– Treatment of bacterial cell with lysozyme or penicillin results the
formation of cell wall deficient bacteria
– Most cell wall deficient bacteria can survive only in hypertonic medium
(high salt conc.)
I. Protoplast
• Derived from Gram positive bacteria & lack cell wall completely
• Unstable and osmotically fragile but metabolically active
• Unable to reproduce

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II. Spheroplast
• Partial removal of cell wall
• Derived from Gram negative bacteria
• Have damaged cell wall which is not functional
• Able to change back to their normal form when the toxic substances is
removed
• Can reproduce in suitable condition

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III. L-forms
• Mutant bacteria with out cell wall
• Bacteria produce in the laboratory
• Able to reproduce
• Spontaneous or antibiotic induced formation of L-forms can cause
chronic infections because such L-forms are resistant to antibiotic
treatment

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IV. Natural L-forms
• The genus Mycoplasma lacks cell wall naturally
• They are very small in size
• Grow very slowly
• Grow best in hypertonic media
• Highly irregular in shape & size (pleomorphic)
• Lacks rigidity
• Not inhibited by Penicillin, Cycloserine, Bacitracin, Cephalosporin

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 Plasma membrane
- It is the actual barrier between the interior and exterior of the bacteria cell.
- The cytoplasmic membrane exhibits a well- defined selective permeability,
excretion of enzyme, and biosynthesis of cell well and other proteins
- The bacterial transport system and the principal energy system (oxidative
phosphophorylation) are located in the cytoplasmic membrane.

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• It accounts for 30% of the dry weight of bacterial cell
• Chemically, the plasma membrane consists of proteins
and phospholipids.
• It is 60% protein, 20 – 30% lipid and 10-20%
carbohydrate
Function of Cell Membrane
• Regulates the transport of nutrients and waste products
into and out of the cell. (It is selectively permeable)
• Assists DNA replication
• Captures energy in ATP (i.e it is site of oxidative
phosphorulation )
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 The plasma membrane also called cytoplasmic or cell
membrane
 The cytoplasmic membrane (5-10 nm thick) consists of
proteins embedded in a bilayer of phospholipids
Functions:
 Selective permeability, it controls which nutrients/
substances may transport into or out of the cell.
 Site for energy generation by oxidative phosphorylation
 Synthesis and assembly of cell wall components
 Section of enzymes and toxins
 Protects the cell against osmotic rupture
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45
Components of Plasma membrane
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Peripheral proteins
• Integral proteins
• Transmembrane proteins

Figure46
4.14b
 Plasma Membrane

 Movement Across Membranes

• Simple diffusion: Movement of a solute from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration.

• Facilitated diffusion: Movement of solutes combined with a

transporter protein in the membrane.

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Movement Across Membranes

484.17
Figure
 Movement Across Membranes

• Osmosis
– Movement of water across a
selectively permeable
membrane from an area of
high water concentration to
an area of lower water
concentration.
• Osmotic pressure
– The pressure needed to stop
the movement of water
across the membrane.
Figure494.18a
Movement Across Membranes

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Figure 4.18c-e
 Movement Across Membranes

• Active transport of substances requires a transporter

protein and ATP.
– Substances such as amino acids, organic acids and inorganic
ions combined with carrier proteins are transported across
membrane and released inside the cell by this mechanism.
• Group translocation of substances requires a
transporter protein similar to active transport but the
nutrients being transported undergoes chemical
modification.
– Sugars and fatty acids are transported by this mechanism.
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 3. Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is the cellular material outside the
nucleus but enclosed by the cell membrane.
 Consists of 70% water
 ~1000 different enzymes
 Many ribosomes
 It is site of the bacterium for all activities
 It is controlled by the information carried in the DNA of
the nucleus.

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Cell Wall

Cytoplasm Cell membrane

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• viscous watery solution of soft gel, containing a
variety organic and inorganic solutes and numerous
small granule called ribosomes
• The cytoplasm consists of water, enzymes oxygen,
waste products, essential nutrients, proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and a complex mixture of all the
materials required by the cell for its metabolic
functions.
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 2. Cellular Element Enclosed with in the Cell Envelope

Mesosomes:
• are complex invaginations of cytoplasmic membrane in
to the cytoplasm seen in many bacteria, but not in all.
– Increase in the total surface area of the membrane.
– Mesosomes are attached to chromosomes and are involved in
DNA segregation during cell division .
– Others are involved in to secretion of proteins and active
transport.
– It is involved in respiratory enzyme -activity. (Site of oxidative
phosphorulation)

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Ribosomes

1. Cytoplamic particles, which are the sites of protein synthesis

2. It is composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (70%) and proteins
(30%)
3. Procaryotic ribosomes are 70S in size, being composed of
30S and 50S subunits.

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 Cytoplasmic inclusions
• are distinct granules that may occupy a substantial part of
the cytoplasm.
• are usually reserve materials of some sort. For example,
– carbon and energy reserves may be stored as glycogen (a
polymer of glucose)
– polybetahydroxybutyric acid (a type of fat) granules.
– Polyphosphate inclusions are reserves of PO4 and possibly
energy;
– elemental sulfur (sulfur globules) are stored by some
phototrophic and some lithotrophic procaryotes as reserves of
energy or electrons.
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Nuclear material
- is concentrated in the cytoplasm as a nucleoid
- No nucleolus & no nuclear membrane
The nucleoid: consists of one long double-stranded circular DNA
molecule (chromosome) or Centrally located cellular mass
without a nuclear membrane. Contains a single circular
chromosome, in which DNA is located.
- Apart from nucleus, the bacteria may have some extra
chromosomal genetic material in the form of DNA, which is
known as Plasmid.

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3. Cellular Element External to the Cell Envelope

Capsule – is a thick gelatinous layer produced by the

plasma membrane secreted outside of the cell wall.
• It is polysaccharide that forms a protective outer coat
to the cell.
Function of Capsule:
• Protects bacteria from phagocytosis by white blood
cells inside the body.
• Protects bacteria from external toxic substances &
degradative enzymes.
• Provides water molecules to bacteria in dry conditions.
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Capsule
- Viscous layer secreted around the cell wall.
- Polysaccharide / polypeptide in nature
 Capsule can be detected by Indian ink staining in which the
capsule stands out as a halo.
 Some of the important characteristics of capsule include:
- Usually it is weekly antigenic
- Not necessary for viability
- Endows virulence & important in adhesion
- Protects from phagocytosis
- Capsulated strains are invariably non motile
 The organism in which capsules have been demonstrated include:
Pneumococci, klebsella, Escerchia coli, hemophilus influenza, etc.
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61
Additional Organelles
3. Flagella –
– Long (3 to 12 µm), filamentous surface appendages
– Organs of locomotion
– Chemically, composed of proteins called flagellins
– The number and distribution of flagella on the bacterial
surface are characteristic for a given species - hence are
useful in identifying and classifying bacteria
– Flagella may serve as antigenic determinants (e.g. the H
antigens of Gram-negative enteric bacteria)
– Presence shown by motility e.g. hanging drop
preparation

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 Types of flagellar arrangement
Polar/ Monotrichous – single flagellum at one
pole

Lophotrichous – tuft of flagella at one pole

Amphitrichous – flagella at both poles

Peritrichous – flagella all over

Amphilophotrichous – tuft of flagella at both ends

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 Additional Organelles
4. Fimbriae/ Pili –
– Thin, hairlike appendages on the surface of many Gram-
negative bacteria
– 10-20µ long, acts as organs of adhesion (attachment) -
allowing bacteria to colonize environmental surfaces or
cells and resist flushing
– Made up of proteins called pilins.
– Pili can be of two types –
 Common pili – short & abundant
 Sex pili - small number (one to six), very long pili, helps
in conjugation (process of transfer of DNA)

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 Additional Organelles

5. Spores –
 Highly resistant resting stages
formed during adverse
environment (depletion of
nutrients)
 Formed inside the parent cell,
hence called Endospores
 Very resistant to heat, radiation and
drying and can remain dormant for
hundreds of years.
 Formed by bacteria like Clostridia,
bacillus

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 Spore or endospore is a highly resistant, metabolically inactive
forms of bacteria.
 Endospores are also formed during unfavorable temperature, pH
and gaseous requirement.
 Endospore formation is protective measure and not
reproductive process.
 The genetic material is enclosed in several protein coats that are
resistant to heat, drying, freezing, toxic chemicals, and radiation.
 The process of Spore formation is - Sporulation
 The process of outgrowth or vegetative growth is – Germination

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A spore consists of:
• Bacterial DNA
• A small amount of cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
• Peptidoglycan
• Very little water
• Keratin like coat

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• The process of formation of spore is referred as
sporulation.
• Factors that induce sporulation include
- Depletion of nutrients
- Desiccation
- Change in pH of the medium
- High temperature
- Radiations
- Chemicals

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• Spores have no metabolic activity and can remain
dormant for many years
• Germination of spores occurs through removal of
the stress inducers that initiate sporulation.
• Upon exposure to water & appropriate nutrients
spore germinate to vegetative bacterial cells
(germination).
• Vegetative bacterial are those cells actively
engaged in growth and reproduction.
• Sporulation is not a means of reproduction

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70
Core
• It contains a complete nucleoid (chromosome), all of
the components of the protein-synthesizing apparatus,
and an energy-generating system based on glycolysis.
• The heat resistance of spores is due in part to their
dehydrated state and in part
Spore Wall
• The innermost layer surrounding the inner spore
membrane is called the spore wall.
• It contains normal peptidoglycan and becomes the cell
wall of the germinating vegetative cell.
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Cortex
• The cortex is the thickest layer of the spore envelope.
• It contains an unusual type of peptidoglycan, with many fewer
cross-links than that are found in cell wall peptidoglycan.
• Cortex peptidoglycan is extremely sensitive to lysozyme, and its
autolysis plays a role in spore germination.
Coat
• The coat is composed of a keratin-like protein containing many
intramolecular disulfide bonds.
• The impermeability of this layer confers spores their relative
resistance to antibacterial chemical agents.
Exosporium – the outer most layer of bacterial endospore
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73
 10.Intracellular inclusions:

• Granules: are intracellular inclusions that serve as a storage for

nutrients.
Bacteria store food in reserve form during favorable conditions,
when there is sufficient amount of nutrients & utilized during
unfavorable conditions.
• Plasmids: are extra-chromosomal DNA particles that carry
important genes for antibiotic resistance, toxin production, and
carbohydrate fermentation.
• Plasmids number may vary from one to many.

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Plasmid
 Extranuclear genetic elements consisting of DNA
 Transmitted to daughter cells during binary fission
 May be transferred from one bacterium to another
 Not essential for life of the cell
 Confer certain properties e.g. drug resistance, toxicity

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Bacterial Toxin
 Bacterial toxins are proteins capable of achieving multiple
remarkable tasks.
 They function as autonomous molecular devices, targeting
specific cells in an organism, punching holes in their membranes,
or modifying intracellular components.
 Intoxication processes involve highly specialized steps of great
complexity.
 Bacterial toxins damage the host at the site of bacterial infection
or distanced from the site of infections.
 The toxins produced by bacteria are enterotoxins, neurotoxins,
cytotoxins, lysins (e.g., hemolysin), gangrene producing toxins.
 Toxins are generally categorized into endotoxins and exotoxins. 76
 Some of the differences between Exotoxins and Endotoxins are as follows :
S.N. Exotoxins Endotoxins
1 Excreted by organisms, living cell Integral part of cell wall
Found in both Gram positive and
2 Found mostly in Gram Negative Bacteria
Gram Negative bacteria

3 It is polypeptide It is lipopolysaccharide complex.

4 Relatively unstable, heat labile (60°C) Relatively stable, heat tolerant

5 Highly antigenic Weakly immunogenic

Toxoids can be madeby treating with
6 Toxoids cannot be made
formalin

7 Highly toxic Moderately toxic

8 Usually binds to specific receptors Specific receptors not found

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 Exotoxin Endotoxin

Not pyrogenic usually, Toxin Specific Fever by induction of interleukin 1 (IL-1)

9 production, Shock
Located on extrachromosomal genes (e.g. Located on chromosomal genes
10 plasmids)

11 Filterable Not so
12 It has mostly enzymatic activity It has no enzymatic activity
13 Its molecular weight is 10KDa (killodalton) Its molecular weight is 50-1000KDa
14 On boiling it get denatured. On boiling it cannot be denatured.
Detected by many tests (neutralization, Detected by Limulus lysate assay
15 precipitation, etc)

Examples: Toxins produced by S.aureus, Examples: Toxins produced by E.coli,

Bacillus cereus, Streptococcus pyogenes,
16 Bacillus anthrcis(Alpha-toxin, also known as Salmonella Typhi, Shigella, Vibrio
cholera(Cholera toxin)
alpha-hemolysin (Hla))

Diseases: Meningococcemia, sepsis by

17 Diseases: Tetanus, diphtheria, botulism GNB 78
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Thank You!

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