LIME

Lime as Building Material

• The use of lime as a cementing material has been made since ancient
times. The Egyptians and Romans made remarkable application of this
material for various constructional purposes.
• Even in India, the various engineering structures such as big palaces,
bridges, temples, forts, monuments, etc. were constructed with lime as
a cementing material and some of these structures still exist in perfectly
good condition.
• At present, the cement has replaced lime to a great extent. But at
places where lime is locally available and when there is acute shortage
of cement, the lime certainly provides a cheap and a reliable alternative
to the cement.
Lime as Building Material
• Lime is not available in nature in its free state, as it reacts with CO2 to
form calcium carbonate.
• Lime also has some unique applications such as its addition to cement
mortar increases the workability and delays the setting time, thus the
mortar can be used for longer periods after mixing.
Sources of Lime:
• The lime is not usually available in nature in free state.
• It is procured by- burning one of the following materials:
(i) Lime stones from the stone hills,
(ii) Boulders of lime stones from the beds of old rivers,
(iii) Kankar found below the ground, and
(iv) Shells of sea animals.
• It may be noted that white chalk is pure limestone and kankar is an
impure limestone.
Properties of Lime:
• Lime has good plasticity and has high workability.
• It has good cementitious properties and is suitable for masonry
works.
• If stiffens easily and has high resistance to moisture. Because of its
high water retentively, shrinkage on drying is small compared to
cement.
Uses of Lime:
Major uses of lime are enlisted below :
• It is used in concrete preparation

• It is used for plastering walls, ceilings, etc

• It is employed for white washing and as a base coat for distempers

• Lime is used in the manufacturing of steel in order to remove the impurities.

• Soil stabilization for construction of roads, airfields and building foundation demands
lime in large quantity.
• Lime slurry is used as mortar for masonry work and for plastering.

• Lime is used as an additive in asphalt which helps to improve the property of cohesion.
Lime helps to increase the resistance of asphalt towards stripping and aging.
 Types of Lime Used in Construction
1. Quick Lime
• Quick lime is also called caustic lime (Calcium Oxide). This is produced by
burning pure limestone (Calcination process). It is the cheapest form of
lime available which is highly amorphous. Quick lime has a great affinity
towards moisture.
• Quick lime is one of the key ingredients in the manufacture of cement. This
is also an important material used for the treatment of drinking water.
2. Lump Lime :
• it is the lime obtained in lumps after burning or calcination in kilns
3. Fat Lime :
• it is that lime which has high calcium oxide content and can set and
become hard only in the presence of carbon dioxide (from atmosphere).
This type of lime is perfectly white in colour
4. Hydraulic lime :
• lime containing small quantities of silica, alumina and iron oxide, which are in
chemical combination with calcium oxide and can set and become hard even
in the absence of co2 and can set under water.

5. Slaked Lime
• Slaked lime is obtained by the process of slaking, where quick lime is
combined with water. This is available as pure lime in the form of a white
powder.
• Slaked lime when exposed to the atmosphere, absorbs carbonic acid in the
presence of water content. It is also called as calcium hydroxide or calcium
hydrate or lime hydrate.
• Slaked lime formed by adding quick lime and water gives a slurry material. This
is highly suitable for mortar applications. It can also be used in plastering
works and in cement as a binder.
6. Hydraulic Lime
• Hydraulic lime is also called as water lime. It contains 30 percent of silica and 5
percent of alumina along with iron oxide. This lime sets when water is added
to it. Hydraulic lime has the following classification:
• Eminently Hydraulic: Eminently hydraulic lime has a chemical composition
similar to Ordinary Portland cement (OPC). This consists of 25 to 39
percentage of silica and alumina. This type can be used for good quality mortar
works.
• Semi-Hydraulic: Semi-hydraulic lime consists of 15 to 25 percentage of silica
and alumina. It is used for good quality works of masonry, brickwork, and
mortar. This is less stronger than eminently hydraulic lime.
• Non-Hydraulic: Non-hydraulic lime has silica and alumina in quantities of less
than 15%. On the process of slaking, it undergoes less expansion. For less
important works, mortar made from non-hydraulic lime is accepted.
The constituents of lime stones
(1) Clay:
• This constituent is responsible for producing hydraulicity in lime. It also makes
lime insoluble in water. If it is in excess, it arrests slaking.
• If it is in small quantity, it retards slaking. A proportion of 8 to 30 per cent is
desirable for making a good lime.
(2) Soluble Silica:
• It is essential to have silica and alumina present in chemical combination with
limestone to develop hydraulicity.
• The silicates of calcium, magnesium and aluminium are responsible for
hydraulicity. Such silicates are inert or inactive at low temperatures.
• But they become active and combine with lime at high temperatures.
(3) Magnesium Carbonate:
• The presence of this constituent allows lime to slake and set slowly, but it
imparts more strength.
• Further, the production of heat and expansion are less. If the content of
carbonate of magnesia is about 30 per cent, the hydraulicity is rendered to the
lime even in absence of clay.
(4) Alkalies and Metallic Oxides:
• When these are present in small amount upto about 5 per cent or so, they
develop hydraulicity due to the formation of soluble silicates at low
temperature.
(5) Sulphates:
• The presence of sulphates in small quantities accelerates the process of setting
and reduces the slaking action.

(6) Iron:
• If iron is present in small quantity, it develops a complex silicate at high
temperature. But excess of iron is objectionable.

(7) Pyrites:
• It is undesirable to have pyrites in the composition of lime stones. Such lime
stones should therefore be rejected.
Classification of Limes:
• The limes which are obtained by calcination of lime stones are
broadly classified into the following three categories:
(1) Fat lime
(2) Hydraulic lime
(3) Poor lime.
(1) Fat lime
• This lime is also known as the high calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime or white
lime. It is popularly known as the fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its volume
is increased to about 2 to 2½ times the volume that of quick lime.
• It is prepared by calcining comparatively pure carbonate of lime which is
composed of about 95 per cent of calcium oxide. The percentage of impurities
in such limestone is less than 5 per cent.
Following are the properties of fat lime:
(i) It hardens very slowly.
(ii) It has a high degree of plasticity.
(iii) It is soluble in water which is changed frequently.
(iv) Its colour is perfectly white.
(v) It sets slowly in presence of air.
(vi) It slakes vigorously.
Following are the uses of fat lime:
(i) It is used in whitewashing and plastering walls.
(ii) With sand, it forms lime mortar which sets in thin joints. Such
mortar can be used for thin joints of brickwork and stonework,
(iii) With surkhi, it forms lime mortar which possesses good setting and
hydraulic properties. Such mortar can be used for thick masonry walls,
foundations, etc. The surkhi is the powder obtained by grinding of the
burnt bricks.
(2) Hydraulic Lime:
• This lime is also known as the water lime as it sets under water. It contains clay and some amount
of ferrous oxide.
Depending upon the percentage of clay, the hydraulic lime is divided into the following three types:
• (i) Feebly hydraulic lime
• (ii) Moderately hydraulic lime
• (iii) Eminently hydraulic lime.
(3) Poor Lime:
• This lime is also known as the impure lime or lean lime. It contains
more than 30 per cent of clay. It slakes very slowly.
• It forms a thin paste with water. It does not dissolve in water though it
is frequently changed. It sets or hardens very slowly.
• It has poor binding properties and its colour is muddy white.
• This lime makes a very poor mortar.
• Such mortar can be used for inferior type of work or at places where
good lime is not available.
I.S. Classifications of Lime:

• The building limes according to BIS:712-1984 (Third revision) are classified

under six categories, namely, Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E and
Class F.
(1) Class A:
• Class A lime is the eminently hydraulic lime which is used for structural
purposes and it is to be supplied in the hydrated form only.
• Its minimum compressive strength with lime sand mortar of proportion (1:3)
by weight at the end of 14 days and 28 days should be respectively 1.75
N/mm2 and 2.80 N/mm2.
(2) Class B:
• Class B lime is the semi-hydraulic lime which is used for mortars for masonry
work and it can be supplied either as quick lime or as hydrated lime.
• Its minimum compressive strength with lime sand mortar of proportion (1:3) by
weight at the end of 14 days and 28 days should be respectively 1.25
N/mm2 and 1.75 N/mm2.
(3) Class C:
• Class C lime is the fat lime which is used mainly for finishing coat in plastering,
whitewashing and with suitable admixture such as surkhi or any other
pozzolanic material to produce artificial hydraulic mortars.
• It is to be supplied in hydrated or quick form.
(4) Class D:
• Class D lime is the magnesium or dolomitic lime which is used for finishing coat
in plastering, whitewashing, etc. It is to be supplied in hydrated or quick form.
(5) Class E:
• Class E lime is the kankar lime which is used for the masonry mortars and it is
to be supplied in the hydrated form only.
(6) Class F:
• Class F is the siliceous dolomitic lime which is used for undercoat and finishing
coat of plaster. It is to be supplied in hydrated or quick form.
• It may be noted that the applications of various categories of limes are
suggestive only.
• The chemical and physical requirements to be compiled by the lime of each
category are mentioned in the above BIS with methods of testing as per
BIS:6932-1973.
Manufacturing of Lime
• The raw material for the manufacturing of Lime is Limestone (CaCO3).
• Lime is obtained from limestone through a process known as calcination.
• Other raw materials from which Lime can be manufactured are kankars, shell,
corals and chalk. The heating of limestone to a temperature of about 900°c in
the presence of air to obtain lime is known as calcination.
• The quick lime produced by calcination is very unstable and if left exposed it will
react with carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere and revert back to calcium
carbonate.
• To avoid this, stabilization of quick lime has to be done, which is achieved by
sprinkling water over quick lime, known as slaking.
• Slaking of lime, which is an exothermic reaction, converts the quick lime to
calcium hydroxide (Hydrated lime), which is in powdered form.
• The slaked lime so produced is sieved through sieve and is used for various
construction purposes like making mortar, lime putty, white washing, etc.
 Manufacture process of Lime:
Following three distinct operations are involved in the manufacture
process of fat lime:
1. Collection of Lime Stones
2. Burning of Lime Stones
3. Slaking of Burnt Lime.
1. Collection of limestone:

• The raw material (limestone) ar collected and stacked in sufficient quantity

near the site of the manufacturing of lime so as to produced lime
continuously. Here are of two types of limestone as describe below:
Massive limestone:- Pure limestone is used for manufacturing of lime (quick
lime) and its impure forms may be used for producing other types of lime. It is
available in almost all states of India.
Kankar limestone:- It is a form of limestone containing about 30% clay in the
form of alumina and silica. It is greyish in color and is mostly used for the
preparation of hydraulic lime.
• For the manufacturing of lime, fuel is most important to burn limestone. Fuel
may be used for calcining of limestone like wood, charcoal, coal, coke, coal
gas, cinder, oil, etc.
Burning of limestone For manufacturing of lime:
• Limestone is to be burnt for producing quick lime which is then slaked to obtain a
lime powder.
• Burning of limestone in a kiln is done to achieve the following object:-
• To develop and maintain the required temperature (Between 900ºC to 1100ºC).
• To regulate the various operations loading, burning, and unloading of lime.
• To burn the total quantity completely so that there is a very small amount of over-
burnt or under burnt limestone.
• To continue the process, if required, to ensure steady out-turn of lime.
• To minimize the heat and other losses.
The burning of lime stones is thus carried out in one of the following:
(i) Clamps
(ii) Intermittent kilns
(iii) Continuous kilns.
(i) Clamps:
• The ground is levelled and cleaned. The lime stones
and fuel are placed in alternate layers, if fuel is
wood.
• But if fuel is of coal or charcoal, the lime stones and
fuel are mixed together and placed in a heap form.
• A typical clamp with dimensions as 6 m X 3.60 m x
3.60 m. The sloping sides are covered with mud
plaster and attempt is thus made to preserve as
much heat as possible. It is then fired from bottom.
• A small opening is provided at top for draught.
When the blue flame at top disappears, it indicates
the completion of the burning of lime.
• The clamp is then allowed to cool down and the
pieces of quick lime are handpicked subsequently.
The clamp burning is adopted to manufacture lime on a small scale because
of its following disadvantages:
(a) The clamp burning proves to be uneconomical to manufacture lime on a
large scale.
(b) The loss of heat is considerable. The mud plaster cracks by the heat from
inside and allows heat to escape.
(c) The quality of lime produced by the clamp burning is not good.
(d) The quantity of fuel required is more and hence it is practiced where lime
stones and fuel are abundant.
(ii) Intermittent Kilns:
• These are of various patterns and their sizes and
shapes vary as per prevailing practice in the
locality. The two important types of intermittent
kilns is discussed here.
• Figure shows the section of intermittent kiln in
which alternate layers of limestone and fuel are
arranged. Such a kiln is known as the intermittent
flame kiln.
• The horizontal and vertical flues are suitably
formed and top of kiln is covered with un-burnt
material.
• The kiln is ignited from bottom and lime stones
are allowed to burn for about 3 days or so. The
kiln is then cooled and unloaded. The process is
• Figure shows the section of an intermittent kiln in which
fuel is not allowed to come into contact with lime stones.
• A rough arch of selected big pieces of lime stones is formed
and smaller pieces of lime stones are packed over this arch.
• The fuel is placed below the arch and when it is ignited,
only flame comes into contact with lime stones.
• Such a kiln is known as the intermittent flare kiln. When
lime stones are sufficiently burnt, the kiln is cooled and
unloaded.
• The process is then repeated. This type of kiln is easy to
manage. The flare kiln produces lime of better quality
because the lime stones are not in contact with the fuel
and the finished product is not mixed with ashes.
• There is considerable wastage of time in intermittent kilns
as every operation includes loading, burning, cooling and
unloading. The supply of lime is also not continuously
guaranteed. Hence such kilns are used to manufacture lime
on moderate scale.
(iii) Continuous Kilns:

• These are also of various patterns and their sizes and shapes vary as
per prevailing practice in the locality. The two important types of
continuous kilns is discussed here.
• The section of continuous kiln in which mixture of lime stones and
fuel is fed from the top. Such a kiln is also known as the continuous
flame kiln.
• The continuous kiln of Roof capacity
about 4 m3 per day. It is in the form of
a cylinder with diameters at top,
middle and bottom as about 1.80 m,
2.30 m and 1.40 m respectively.
• The widening of middle portion is done
to accommodate hot gases of
combustion. The bottom is covered by
grating with holes.
• After burning, the lime is collected at
the bottom and it is removed through
access shaft.
• The kiln is partly under the ground and
partly above the ground. A loading
platform is provided at the top.
• The inside surface of kiln is covered with
fire-brick lining.
• To facilitate the fall of calcined particles,
the grating may be raked or cleaned
through the rake hole.
• As the level of material in kiln falls, the
required quantity of mixture of lime
stones and fuel is fed from the top. A roof
may be provided at the top to protect the
kiln.
• the section of continuous kiln in which fuel
is not allowed to come into contact with
lime stones, It is also known as the
continuous flare kiln.
• This kiln consists of two sections – upper and lower. The upper section serves
as storage of lime stones. The lower portion is provided with fire-brick lining.
While starting the kiln, a small quantity of fuel is mixed with limestone and
ignited. The fuel is then fed through shafts around the upper and lower
sections of kiln.
• The feeding of lime stones is done from opening at top. The removal of
calcined material is done through a grating placed at the bottom of kiln. A
roof is provided at the top to protect the kiln.
• There is considerable saving of time and fuel in case of continuous kilns, but
the initial cost is high. Hence these kilns are adopted to manufacture lime on
a large scale.
 3. Slaking of Burnt Lime:
• The quick lime which is obtained by burning of lime stones slakes when exposed to the
atmosphere. This is known as the natural slaking or air slaking and it is a very slow
process. Hence the slaking is achieved by adding water to quick lime.
Following are the two methods of slaking:
(i) Slaking to paste
(ii) Slaking to powder.
• The following points should be kept in mind…
[Link] of lime
[Link] nature of lime (whether quick-slaking, medium shaking, or slow slaking).
[Link] of water for slaking.
[Link] to be maintained during slaking ( The optimum temperature for slaking
varies from 85 ºC to 98 ºC, depending upon the type of lime).
[Link] duration for slaking.
• There is a different procedure of slaking for various classes of
limes because of differences in their chemical composition and
properties of their setting.
Here are some methods for slaking:-
• Air slaking
• Basket slaking
• Tank slaking
• Platform slaking

Air slaking
• In this method, lime is spread over a non-porous platform. It
absorbs moisture from the air and slakes slowly into a powder
form. This method is not suitable as complete slaking is not
obtained.
Basket slaking
• In this method, the quick lime is broken
into pieces (size not more than 50mm)
and filled in the basket. The basket is
then immersed in clean water for a few
seconds. In this way, quick lime crumbles
and falls into powder form.
• This method is suitable for semi-
hydraulic limes. This is also a not very
suitable method as complete slaking is
not obtained.
Platform slaking
• When a form of quick lime powder is required,
the Quick lime is spread with a 15 to 20 cm
thick layer coating water-proof platform.
• Quick lime is spread on the platform from the
and water is sprinkled on it by water can or by
hand, remembering that the heap of quick lime
should not be soaked in excess of water.
• Sufficient water must be sprinkled to convert it
into a fine powder. The stack of quick lime
should be covered with canvas or board to keep
the heat and slacking well.
• The platform should be left for 24 hours after
pouring water and then filtered with IS strainer,
the opening of the sieve should be 0.25 mm.
Tank slaking
• This method of slaking is known as slaking while adding lime to water. This
method is adopted when lime is required. The tanks may be of steel, bricks or
concrete or such a material which renders them watertight and is not attacked by
lime. The first tank is about 50 cm deep and is made generally above the ground
level, while the second tank 70 cm to 80 cm deep and is made below the ground
level.
• The height of the tank is filled with water from 25 to 30 centimeters and then the
quenched limestone from 5 to 10 centimeters slowly pours in the size tank. All
the lime pieces should be well immersed in water. No lime pieces should appear
out of the water.
• As soon as the lime pieces pour into the water, after 1-2
minutes They react together and the temperature of the water
starts to rise.
• The temperature of the water rises from 45 degrees to 79
degrees until the pieces of lime are completely sliced, this
process continues continuously after which all the pieces of
lime are dissolves.
• It looks like milk, also known as the milk of lime, a high tank
has a sieve on the bottom.
• The filtrate of this strainer is of size up to 0.25 mm, out of
which the milk of lime is let out which goes into the second
tank, it is kept out to dry for 2 days outside.
• This lime is known as fat lime or lime putty
Storage of Lime on Site
• Basically lime reacts with moisture present in the atmosphere and
even on the ground surface. Hence proper care must be taken while
storing lime on site.

• To avoid the air slaking of lime, they should be stored in compact

heaps and in insulated spaces.

• It should be kept under covered and closed space when in the form of
hydrated lime and they should be used within a week when in the
form of quick lime.
Tests on Limestone:
• Following four tests are conducted on limestone/powdered limestone.
[Link] test
[Link] Test
[Link] Test
[Link] Test
1. Physical test
• The physical properties of lime can be estimated by its color, smell, texture, etc.
White color indicates pure limestone.
• The bluish-grey, brown, dark color indicates hydraulic limestone. Hydraulic
limestone tastes like clay and produces an earthy smell.
• If limestone is glittering or shining, then it indicates the presence of free salts in
it. Similarly, the presence of bulges or bumps indicates it as quick lime.
2. Heat Test
• Heat test is performed to find
the amount of calcium oxide
(lime) present in the
limestone. In this test, a
sample of dry limestone is
weighed and it is heated for
four hours in an open fire.
• During heating, carbon dioxide
present in the limestone
evaporates and weight
reduces. After heating, the
sample is weighed for loss of
weight is recorded. Form this
data, Amount of calcium oxide
content present is determined.
3. Acid Test
• The acid test is used to determine the amount of calcium carbonate and type of lime present in the
limestone. The procedure of acid test is as follows.
• A teaspoon of powdered lime is taken in the test tube and 10 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid is
added to it.
• Substances are stirred thoroughly and kept the mix in a safe place for 24 hours.
• After 24 hours, observe the mix. If there is a formation of high effervescence and less residue left
at the bottom of the tube then it indicates a high amount of calcium carbonate which represents
pure limestone.
• If the formation of effervescence is less and more residue is left at the bottom of the test tube then
it indicates less amount of calcium carbonate in it and is treated as impure or hydraulic limestone.
• To classify the lime present in the limestone, perform another test continuation to the above test.
• In this step, just invert the above test tube with its upside-down if the gel formed above the residue
is not moving even when the test tube is inverted then it is designated as class A lime.
• If the gel formed tends to flow when the test tube is inverted then it is designated as Class B lime.
• If there is no gel formation, then it is designated as class C lime.
Following table distinguishes class A, B and C type limes:

Lime Class Lime Type Lime Percentage Uses

Mortar for foundation

Class A Eminently Hydraulic Lime 60 – 70 works, damp place works,
etc.

Mortar for masonry,

Class B Semi Hydraulic Lime 70-75
flooring, etc.

Non-Hydraulic Lime / Fat Plastering, white washing,

Class C 93-95
lime etc.
4. Ball Test
• The test procedure of ball test contains the
following steps.
• Powdered lime is taken and water is added to it
until stiff consistency is achieved.
• Using this stiff mixture, balls of 40 mm size
are prepared.
• These balls are left undisturbed for six hours.
• After six hours, the balls are immersed in a
water basin.
• If lime balls are expanded and disintegrated in
the water within minutes then it indicates the
presence of class C lime. Powdered limestone
• If there is no expansion or very little expansion
and numerous cracks on balls then it indicates