Fuel Cells

Fuel Cells

 In the year 1838, for the first time, Sir William Robert
Groves suggested an electrochemical combination of
hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, and he named
this device a gas battery.
 In developing gas batteries, Sir William Robert Groves used
a combination of sheet iron, copper, and porcelain plates and
a sulfate solution of copper and dilute acid.
 Based on this idea he proposed the concept of the fuel cell in
1839 Figure 1: Schematic diagram of William Grove’s gas battery

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy.
 Applications of the Fuel cells
The applicability of each fuel type in various sectors summarised in the below figure
Fuel Cells Vehicles in world wide
Fuel Cell Vehicles distribution over Continents
Share of different vehicle types across the total number of fuel cell vehicles
Fuel Cells Vehicles (passenger cars) in worldwide
Fuel Cells based passenger cars in North America
Fuel Cells based passenger cars in Asia
Fuel Cells based passenger cars in Europe
Distribution of Fuel Cell buses over Continents
Fuel Cells vehicles in Chinese market
Fuel Cells Vehicles developed in worldwide
Hydrogen Refuelling stations
Hydrogen Refuelling stations
Fuel Cells Vehicles in world wide
 Difference between Battery and Fuel Cell

 The battery stores the energy and works similar to that of the fuel cell.

 The quantity of chemical reactant contained inside the battery itself determines the maximum energy that is readily

accessible. When the chemical reactants are used up (or drained), the battery will stop producing electrical energy.

 The reactants in a secondary battery are refilled during charging, adding energy from an external source to the

battery.

 However, if fuel and oxidants are introduced to the electrodes, a fuel cell may undergo a kind of energy conversion

that, in principle, can produce electrical energy.

 Despite having comparable parts and features to a standard battery, a fuel cell differs in several ways.
 Primary Components of Fuel Cell

 The primary component of a fuel cell is its physical structure, also known
as a building block, is an electrolyte layer in contact with a porous anode
and cathode on both sides.
 Gaseous fuels are continually delivered to the anode, and an oxidant is
continuously fed to the cathode.
 An electrochemical reaction takes place at the electrodes of a conventional
fuel cell to create an electric current.
 According to Appleby and Foulkes, any chemically oxidizable material that
can be constantly supplied (as a fuel) may be burnt galvanically as fuel at
Figure 2: Individual schematic of the fuel cell
the anode of a fuel cell.
 The oxidant may be any fluid that can be reduced at a sufficient rate.
Electrodes

 The electrodes consist of porous gas diffusion layers, usually made of a highly electronic conductive material
such as a porous graphite gas diffusion layer.

 The three primary purposes of porous electrodes in fuel cells are

1. To provide a surface site where gas/liquid ionization or de-ionization reactions can occur,

2. To conduct formed ions away from or into the three-phase interface, and

3. To act as a physical barrier separating the bulk gas phase and the electrolyte.

 Because ionization reaction rates rise with temperature, the catalytic function of electrodes is more significant
in lower-temperature fuel cells and less significant in high-temperature fuel cells.

 In the vicinity of the porous electrode, a three-phase contact is created between the reactants, electrolyte, and
catalyst.
Electrodes

 The electrodes consist of porous gas diffusion layers, usually made of a highly electronic conductive material
such as a porous graphite gas diffusion layer.

 The three primary purposes of porous electrodes in fuel cells are

1. To provide a surface site where gas/liquid ionization or de-ionization reactions can occur,

2. To conduct formed ions away from or into the three-phase interface, and

3. To act as a physical barrier separating the bulk gas phase and the electrolyte.

 Because ionization reaction rates rise with temperature, the catalytic function of electrodes is more significant
in lower-temperature fuel cells and less significant in high-temperature fuel cells.

 In the vicinity of the porous electrode, a three-phase contact is created between the reactants, electrolyte, and
catalyst.
 Necessity and Applications of the Fuel Cells
Necessity
 To get away from fossil fuels to meet our energy needs.

 Fuel cell technology is one of the possibilities for fully achieving the energy targets among the many options

available.

 The principle of the Carnot cycle does not govern fuel cell performance, so Carnot efficiency does not provide

limitations on it, and it is highly efficient compared to traditional power conversion efficiency.

 Hence, It can provide an efficiency of 100%.

 The fuel cell offers several benefits, including minimal noise, no moving parts, almost no pollution, high

conversion efficiency, low maintenance costs, improved reliability (due to having fewer moving parts), and high

power density.
Unique features of the fuel cell based on the hydrogen-based fuel cells

1. Zero-emission power:
 The green hydrogen is the most environmentally friendly fuel for fuel cells—the electrolysis of water results in

the production of this substance.

 The electrolysis process has no adverse side effects since it uses renewable energy sources like solar or wind

energy and does not produce any waste.

 Because hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) do not emit any hazardous pollutants, they eliminate the expenditures

involved with processing and storing toxic chemicals such as battery acid or diesel fuel.

 The only byproducts produced when our products use hydrogen in its purest form (green hydrogen) are heat

and water, making them an emission-free and environmentally friendly power source.
Unique features of the fuel cell based on the hydrogen-based fuel cells

2. Robust reliability:
 The most accessible and prevalent material used as an energy transporter today is hydrogen.

 It is an excellent fuel for fuel cells since it has the capacity to store and distribute a significant quantity of energy.

 Because they function at relatively low temperatures, hydrogen fuel cells are more durable and provide electricity

of consistent quality.

 Additionally, they have been put through rigorous testing in extreme environments, including severe cold or heat,

storms, and hurricanes.

Unique features of the fuel cell based on the hydrogen-based fuel cells

3. Improved efficiency:
 Conventional power plants generate energy with efficiencies ranging from 30 to 40% on average, with "real

efficiency" being substantially lower owing to losses that occur during the transmission and distribution of the

electricity.

 The efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells in manufacturing, on the other hand, ranges between 40 and 60%, as stated by

the United States Department of Energy (DOE). This number may rise to about 80% if heat recovery is included.

 This range is comparable to the internal combustion engine of a conventional automobile, which is only

approximately 25% efficient in energy use.

 Utilizing fuel cell forklifts to increase the mileage range of electric cars is one way that the efficiency of hydrogen

fuel cells is being used to boost the productivity of warehouses by up to 15%.

Unique features of the fuel cell based on the hydrogen-based fuel cells

4. Scalable:
 A single fuel cell can generate around 0.5 to 1 volt, which is insufficient for even the most basic uses.

 Hence, cells are connected in series to create tier up stacks in order to reach greater voltages.

 Depending on the purpose, a stack of fuel cells may have hundreds of individual fuel cells.

 In other words, one may construct them exactly to fit their power requirements.
Unique features of the fuel cell based on the hydrogen-based fuel cells

5. Lower operational costs:

 Fuel cells have a lower overall cost than batteries and traditional internal combustion engines.

 They eliminate the need for frequent battery replacement, charging, and maintenance, which saves time, effort,

space, and peak power.

 The units outlast lead-acid batteries and can be refuelled in under three minutes, thus cutting down on vehicle and

worker downtime.

 Furthermore, the operational expenses are up to 84% lower than those of combustion generators for static electricity

due to the reduced maintenance complexity and the reduced frequency of site visits.
The historical development of fuel cells
 Types of the Fuel Cells
 Fuel cells are generally grouped into three broad groups in order to identify and compare the fundamental

criteria such as temperature, fuel flexibility, power need, and efficiency.

 The categories include operating temperature, electrolyte type, and fuel supply mechanism.

 Although fuel cells function in the same ways, different types have been designed to benefit from various

electrolytes and to meet various application requirements.

 The physicochemical and thermomechanical qualities of materials used in fuel cell components (electrodes,

electrolyte, interconnect, current collector, and so on) are determined by the operating temperature and useful

life of the cell.

 Types of the Fuel Cells

1) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC),

3) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC),

4) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and

5) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC).

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
A PEMFC is a basic device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy electrochemically.
A continuous fuel supply is required for the optimal operation of a PEMFC. Heat energy and water are
byproducts of the process.

(c)

Figure: PEMFC main components in the assembly

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

 The anode and cathode electrodes of the PEMFC are comprised of a catalyst layer (CL), gas diffusion layer
(GDL), and microporous layer (MPL).

 The PEMFCs are stacked in series using

highly conductive bipolar plates (BPs) as
shown in the figure.
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Membrane/ Electrolyte
 Primary functions of the membrane are to separate, allow protons to drift from the anode to the cathode, and
prevent electron transmission.
 The material used for the membrane should be a good insulator, ionically conductive, restrict the electron
exchange &gas crossover, and possess chemical stability with mechanical strength.
 The initial membrane utilized in the PEM fuel cell was polystyrene sulfonic acid, and it was discovered to be
fragile. Later, DuPont’s Nafion membrane was used in the PEMFC.
 Nowadays, commercial membranes are constructed of organic polymers with acidic functions, but they still need
water or an electrolyte to act as proton conductivities.
 The Nafion membranes, a perfluoro sulfonic polymer with a polytetrafluoroethylene backbone and sulfonic acid
groups at the end of a hydrophobic polyfluorinated side chain, are the most widely used PEMs among the
commercially available membranes. This membrane has high proton conductivity and excellent chemical stability,
but its operation is only possible up to 80oC due to a substantial dependence on its water content
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Catalyst layer (CL)
Catalyst layer (CL) of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PMFCs) impacts their performance,
durability, and cost. The CL is observed as an infinitesimally thin interface in PEMFCs, despite the fact that it is an
essential component in converting liquid water to vapor, controlling the water flow throughout the porous electrode
of a PEMFC.
A well-designed CL should be
1. Chemically active to activate the oxygen,

2. Easy to release the product water from the catalyst surface,

3. Stable under corrosive operating conditions,

4. Easy to transport reactants and products, and

5. It is easy to transport electrons, protons, and heat, necessitating an optimized structure due to the manufacturing
processes.
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Catalyst layer (CL)

During cell operation, if the catalysts are not chosen well or the CL structure is not well made, a lot of H 2O2

can be made, which can attack and destroy ionomers, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or carbon supports.

Due to their remarkable capacity to speed up reactions, lower the Gibbs activation function, and promote dissociative

route reactions, Pt-based catalysts are often used in PEM fuel cells.

Pure Pt has better oxygen-binding energy than other metal catalysts, making it a better choice for oxygen reduction

reaction.
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Gas diffusion layer (GDL)

 Gas diffusion layer (GDL) primary functions are to allow products to flow from CL to the bipolar plate (BP) and

promote the transfer of reactants through flow field channels from BP to CL.

 In addition, GDL provides mechanical strength to the membrane and protects the CL from corrosion and erosion.

 The GDL comprises highly porous materials (80%) to meet its functionalities.

 GDL is often made from materials with a carbon fibre composition.

 The GDLs are usually made up of various materials, including polyamide, titanium (Ti), and silicon-based.
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Microporous layer (MPL)

 Microporous layer (MPL) is a carbon material mixed with a hydrophobic polymeric binder deposited on a GDL.

 The MPL primarily assists in lowering mass transport constraints via increased water removal and a

corresponding decrease in flooding, lowering contact resistance between the GDL and the catalyst layer, and

lowering catalyst loss to the GDL interior.

 Carbon black is a common MPL at the moment.

 The recent carbonic materials with beneficial features, such as corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, high

thermal and electrical conductivities, cheap fabrication costs, and environmental friendliness
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Bipolar plates (BPs)

 Bipolar plates (BPs) are an essential part of multipurpose proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells.

 They transfer electricity from cell to cell, distribute fuel gas and air equally, remove heat from the active region,

and guard against coolant and gas leaks.

 Additionally, BPs contribute considerably to the size, weight, and price of PEMFC stacks. As a result, there are

significant efforts being made globally to develop acceptable materials for BPs.

 Non-porous graphite, coated metallic sheets, polymer composites, etc. are some of the materials
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Current Collector

 Current collector plate is attached to BP in a PEMFC.

 The primary function of a current collector is to collect current produced in a fuel cell.

 In a unit cell or stacked PEM fuel cell, the BPs may also serve as current collectors. With the help of a current

collector and an electrode, the electron generated at the anode must go toward the cathode through an external circuit.

 The material must be lightweight, highly conductive, and have improved electrochemical and mechanical stability to

be designed as an efficient current collector.

 Metals and alloys, including titanium, aluminum, copper, and stainless steel, are the most often used materials for

current collectors. Further additional metallic coatings are done to improve the conductivity of the selected BP

materials
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Other components in a PEMFC

 Other components in a PEMFC include sealing and end plate.

 Another essential element in a PEM fuel cell is the sealing material. It serves as a barrier between the membrane

and the BPs to prevent reactants, products, and coolants from leaking.

 The sealing material must have substantial gas impermeability, be affordable, simple to manufacture, and have

significant chemical, electrochemical, and thermal stability.

 In addition, one of the crucial components in the development of an effective fuel cell is the end plate. These plates are

situated at the anode end and cathode end of the fuel cell, respectively.
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
In order to maintain a high level of performance over time, PEMFC stacks need to have stringent controls

on the quality of the fuel and air input, as well as the degree of humidity and temperature.

Reactions in the PEMFC are given by:

Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−

Cathode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O

Overall: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

Figure: Schematic of the PEMFC

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Direct hydrogen PEMFC system

 The main components in this system are
condensers, heat exchangers, and
humidifiers.
 The main complications in the present
system are that it requires extensive thermal
and water management with precise
operating conditions (60–80 °C and 40–
100% RH) for PEMFC.
 Engines must function at up to 60 °C under
automotive design guidelines.

Figure: Schematic of the PEMFC operated with hydrogen fuel.

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

Reformer-based PEMFC systems

 These PEMFCs employ hydrocarbon fuels to
avoid the issues associated with storing
hydrogen fuel.
 The hydrocarbon fuels converted to synthetic
gas are primarily composed of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, referred to as fuel
reformation.
 The reformed products are continually produced
as inherent plant products and fed to the fuel
cell unit.
Figure: Schematic of the reformed methanol fuel cell.  In addition to the hydrogen-powered PMFC
unit, the fuel reformation needs additional
components.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

 Compared to the hydrogen-fed proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell system, the direct methanol fuel cell
(DMFC) does not require complicated humidification and heat management modules. This is because the dilute
mixtures of methanol and water introduced into the DMFC provide the necessary humidification and control of
temperature.
 Compared to the usage of hydrogen as a fuel, methanol offers many benefits, including a higher theoretical energy
density, the fact that it is a cheap liquid fuel, and the ease with which it may be handled, transported, and stored.
 The liquid-feed system does not need any fuel processing equipment in order to function and may be used even when
the temperature is at room temperature.
 DMFC is more favorable than hydrogen fuel cells due to its simplicity of fuel supply, storage, operation at low
temperatures, and absence of humidification needs, as well as its decreased design complexity and high-power
density. Despite these benefits, restricted working temperatures, methanol crossover, and expensive prices are
among the challenges impeding DMFC commercialization
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

The overall reactions for this type of cells are:

Anode: CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e−

Cathode: 3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e− → 3H2O

Overall: CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Figure: Schematic of the DMFC.

 Types of the Fuel Cells

1) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC),

3) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC),

4) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and

5) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC).

 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

 The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) was one of the first types of fuel cells to get a substantial amount of research.

 Francis Thomas Bacon was responsible for building the first alkali electrolyte fuel cell in 1939. He used potassium

hydroxide dissolved in water as the electrolyte and porous electrodes created for "gas diffusion" as opposed to the

acid electrolytes and solid electrodes used in previous kinds of fuel cells.

 An alkaline fuel cell typically contains a liquid electrolyte; hence, the cell will theoretically have three chambers

separated by separators or electrodes. The reactants are divided into two distinct compartments, and the electrolyte

is contained in one chamber. Only lately have polymer membranes been created as electrolytes in AFCs.

 The only difference between these fuel cells and PEM fuel cells is that these fuel cells employ an alkaline

membrane rather than an acid membrane.

 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

 Alkaline cells using liquid electrolytes may be run in a recirculating mode, lessening carbonate formation's effects

in the electrolyte.

 However, a shunt current is created when the mode is set to recirculate. Shunt currents are a substantial source of

inefficiency in electrochemical reactors, including flow batteries, electrolyzers, and fuel cells.

 AFCs are easy to use, have excellent electrical efficiency, and are well-suited for dynamic modes of operation.

 They are adaptable enough to be built in large and small power plants and compact systems.

 The AFC has the highest electrical efficiency of any fuel cell; nonetheless, it often demands highly pure gases.

 However, this is often thought to be a significant drawback for the bulk of applications.

 An AFC may function at temperatures of up to 230oC, depending on the kind of fuel cell used.

 The design will be similar to that of a PEMFC stack.

 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

The basic chemical reactions are:

Anode: 2 H2 + 4 OH−→ 4 H2O + 4 e−

Cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e− → 4 OH−

Cell reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Figure: Outline representation of the AFC.

 Types of the Fuel Cells

1) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC),

3) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC),

4) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and

5) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC).

 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
 PAFCs are often regarded as belonging to the first generation of modern fuel cells.
 These are the most developed cell categories and were the first to be used commercially.
 Unlike AFCs, which were initially planned for use in space applications, PAFCs were constructed with terrestrial
commercial applications in mind from the start.
 The oxidant gas in PAFCs is carbon dioxide-containing air, while the primary fuel for PAFC power generation
is hydrocarbons, particularly natural gas.
 The name of this sort of cell hints at the fact that PAFC employs highly concentrated phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
as the electrolyte, along with porous carbon electrodes containing platinum catalysts, leading to a significant
increase in cell cost.
 The operating temperature range of PAFCs usually ranges from 170 to 210 °C.
 When PAFC is utilized for the co-generation of electricity and heat, these fuel cells are 40–50% efficient in
producing only electricity but 80% efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
 Compared to PEM cells, which are quickly "poisoned" by carbon monoxide because carbon monoxide

attaches to the platinum catalyst at the anode, reducing the fuel cell's efficiency, PAFCs are more tolerant of

impurities in fossil fuels that have been converted into hydrogen.

 The efficiency of PAFCs is slightly higher than that of combustion-based power plants, which usually run at

around 33% efficiency.

 PAFCs are likewise less powerful than conventional fuel cells, given the same volume and weight. These fuel

cells are often extensive and heavy.

 They are more costly than other fuel cells because they need to load considerably more expensive platinum

catalysts.
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

The electrochemical reactions that are taking place in the cell

are:

Anode reaction: 2 H2 → 4 H+ + 4 e−

Cathode reaction: O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−→ 2 H2O

Overall cell reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Figure 11: Schematic of the PAF.

 Types of the Fuel Cells

1) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC),

3) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC),

4) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and

5) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC).

 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
 The molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) was initially designed to run entirely on coal.

 However, this aim has yet to be achieved; natural gas or coal-derived gases are the primary fuel for modern

MCFCs.

 The carbonate ions react with the hydrogen oxidation process at the anode to create water and carbon dioxide

while also releasing electrons into the external circuit.

 Carbon dioxide and electrons from the external circuit combine at the cathode to change oxygen into carbonate

ions.

 The MCFC is being developed for its potential to provide reliable and efficient energy for both large and small-

scale utility applications and decentralized power generation with the added benefit of heat co-generation.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

The extensive electrochemical reactions that come from this in

the MCFC include

Anode: H2 + CO32− → H2O + CO2 + 2 e−

Cathode: ½ O2 + CO2 + 2 e− → CO32−

Overall cell reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + electrical energy + heat

Figure: Schematic of the MCFC.

 Types of the Fuel Cells

1) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC),

3) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC),

4) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and

5) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC).

 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) were developed to utilize coal as the primary fuel or as a "coal gas cell," in
which the primary fuels would be coal-derived fuel gases. Natural gas and coal-derived gases are now
recognized as the primary fuels.

 These fuel cells are known as third-generation fuel cell technology. At the same time, the first and second
generations are PAFCs and MCFCs, respectively.

 The solid oxide fuel cell is a highly efficient energy source that utilizes all solid components, including the oxide
ion conductor electrolyte.

 SOFCs utilize a hard ceramic compound of metal, such as calcium oxide or zirconium oxide, as the
electrolyte, which is a promising step toward developing efficient fuel cells.

 The high-temperature operation makes it possible to reduce the cost by eliminating the need for precious metal
catalysts.

 Although SOFCs have high-temperature limitations and are typically large, they offer great potential for
various applications.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

The overall electrochemical reaction occurring at each electrode

when we use hydrogen as the fuel:

Anode: H2 + O2− → H2O + 2e−

Cathode: ½ O2 + 2e− → O2−

Overall: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + electrical energy + heat

when carbon monoxide is the fuel, the cathode reaction is

remains the same and other reactions given as:

Anode: CO + O2− → CO2 + 2 e−

Figure: Schematic of the SOFC fuel cell.

Overall: CO + ½ O2 → CO2 + electrical energy + heat

 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
The SOFC offers several benefits that make it stand out from other fuel cell types.

 The simpler concept, design, and construction of this type of fuel cell means that the reaction zone at the electrode-
electrolyte interface becomes a two-phase (gas-solid) contact, which is a positive aspect compared to the three-
phase zone required for liquid electrolyte fuel cells like PAFCs and MCFCs.
 The electrochemical kinetics at the electrodes proceed efficiently without requiring Noble metals as catalysts and
with minimal activation polarization. Therefore, the need for expensive and specially prepared catalysts is
eliminated.
 The high operating temperatures of SOFCs enable the internal reforming of methane and other hydrocarbons to
produce hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide, and this process is even more effective than the corresponding process
in MCFCs.
 The high-temperature SOFC has excellent potential for system compatibility with other components and processes
(also known as the balance of plant), such as primary fuel processing procedures like coal gasification.
 Due to its high-quality waste heat, it offers an excellent opportunity to generate additional electric power by
utilizing conventional steam or gas turbines through co-generation applications and bottoming cycles.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
On the positive side, the solid oxide fuel cell has several advantages. Although the search for appropriate
materials for cell components is still progressing, there is potential for improvement as the operating temperature
results in a reversible cell potential of approximately 0.9 V.

 Better applicability of the SOFCs is achieved by developing low-temperature SOFCs operating at 550 –650 ◦C and
intermediate-temperature SOFCs operating at 650 – 850 ◦C.

 SOFCs are ideal for large-scale stationary power generators, which can provide electricity for factories and towns.

 SOFCs can use hydrogen and carbon monoxide as reactive fuels, which presents exciting possibilities.

 SOFCs have the potential to be up to 60% efficient at converting fuel to electricity, which is a promising
development.

 Applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation) have the potential to achieve
overall fuel use efficiencies of up to 80-85%.
 Summary of the Fuel Cells

Figure: This schematic representation highlights the incredible flexibility of fuel cells.
 Summary of the Fuel Cells

Table: The details of the operating parameters of various fuel cell types
 Summary of the Fuel Cells

Table: The chemical reactions in various fuel cell types.

 Summary of the Fuel Cells
Table: The performance parameters of various fuel cell types comparison.
 Summary of the Fuel Cells

Table: The efficiency, capacity, and installation cost associated with various fuel cell types comparison.
 Summary of the Fuel Cells
Table: Advantage, disadvantages, and challenges of various fuel cell types.