The Endocrine System

Ch. 9

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 The Endocrine System

 Second controlling system of the body

 Uses chemical messengers (hormones)
 Hormones control several major processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism

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 The Endocrine System

 Endocrinology is the scientific study of hormones

and endocrine organs
 Specialized cells  secrete hormones blood  to
target sites
 These hormones regulate the activity of other
cells

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 The Chemistry of Hormones
 Hormones are classified chemically as:
 Amino acid–based
 Steroids
 Prostaglandins

Hormone Action
 Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs
 Target cells specific receptors
 Hormone binding alters cellular activity

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 Hormone Action

 Typically, one or more of the following occurs:

1. Change plasma membrane permeability
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
5. Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes

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 Hormone Action
 Direct gene activation
1. Steroid hormones diffuse
through the membrane of
target cells
2. The hormone enters the
nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a
specific protein
4. Hormone-receptor complex
binds to specific sites on the
cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated
6. New proteins are synthesized
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 Hormone Action

 Second-messenger system
1. Hormone binds to a receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a
series of reactions that
activates an enzyme
3. Second-messenger molecule
produced
 (such as cyclic AMP, known as
cAMP)
4. Oversees additional
intracellular changes to
promote a specific response
in the target cell
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 Schoology Practice

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

 Hormone levels in the blood are maintained

mostly by negative feedback

 The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into

three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

 Hormonal stimuli
 Most common
 Endocrine organs are
activated by other
hormones
Example:
 Hormones of the
hypothalamus
stimulate the anterior
pituitary to secrete its
hormones
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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

 Humoral stimuli
 Humoral indicates
various body fluids
 Blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients
stimulate hormone
release
 Examples:
Parathyroid hormone
and calcitonin blood
calcium levels
Insulin  blood glucose
levels
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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

Neural stimuli
 Nerve fibers stimulate
hormone release
 Most are under the
sympathetic control
 Examples:
Sympathetic stimulation
of the adrenal medulla

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 Schoology Practice

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 © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endocrine
Organs
Figure 9.3 Location of the major endocrine organs of the body.

Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus
Endocrine
The Major

Adrenal glands
Organs

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

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 The Major Endocrine Organs

 Some glands w/ purely

endocrine functions
 Anterior pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, parathyroids
 Hormones are released
directly into blood or lymph
 Other glands are mixed
glands, with both endocrine
and exocrine functions

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland
 Has two functional
lobes
 Anterior pituitary—
glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary—
nervous tissue

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus
produces releasing
hormones and
inhibiting hormones
 to anterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus also
makes two hormones:
oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone
 to posterior pituitary

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Posterior pituitary
 Does not make
hormones
 Stores hormones
 Two hormones
released
 Oxytocin
 Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

Posterior pituitary:
Oxytocin
 Stimulates contractions
of the uterus during
labor, sexual relations,
and breastfeeding
 Causes milk ejection
(let-down reflex) in a
breastfeeding woman

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 Posterior Pituitary

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

 Inhibits urine production (diuresis) by promoting water
reabsorption by the kidneys
 Blood pressure increases
 ADH is also known as vasopressin

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 Anterior Pituitary

 Two hormones affect nonendocrine targets:

Growth hormone, Prolactin
 Four are tropic hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone, Luteinizing hormone,
Thyrotropic hormone, Adrenocorticotropic hormone
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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 All anterior pituitary hormones:

 Are proteins
 Act through second-messenger systems
 Are regulated by hormonal stimuli
 Are regulated mostly by negative feedback

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 Anterior Pituitary

 Growth hormone (GH)

 Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones
 Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
 Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy

 Prolactin (PRL)
 Stimulates and maintains milk production following
childbirth
 Function in males is unknown

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 Anterior Pituitary

Gonadotropic hormones
 Regulate hormonal activity
of the gonads
 Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
 development in ovaries
 development in testes
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Ovulation
 Testosterone

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called thyroid-

stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Directs the thyroid to release thyroxine (T4)
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex

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More
Glands
 Pineal Gland

 Hangs from the roof of

the third ventricle of the
brain
 Secretes melatonin
 body’s sleep/wake cycle
 coordinates fertility &
inhibits the reproductive
system

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 Thyroid Gland

 Found at the base of the

throat, inferior to the Adam’s
apple Thyroid cartilage

 Consists of two lobes and a

connecting isthmus thyroid gland

 Follicles are hollow structures

that store colloidal material
 Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin

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 Thyroid Gland

Thyroid hormone
 Major metabolic hormone
 Controls rate of oxidation
of glucose
 Needed for tissue growth
and development
 Composed of two active
iodine-containing
hormones
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Triiodothyronine (T3)
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 Thyroid Gland

Calcitonin
 Decreases blood
calcium levels by
causing calcium
deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to
parathyroid hormone
 Produced by
parafollicular cells

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 Parathyroid Glands

 Tiny masses on the

posterior of the thyroid
 Secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
 Most important regulator of
calcium ion
 Stimulates osteoclasts to
remove Ca2+ from bone
 increases blood calcium
levels
 Stimulates calcium absorption

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Figure 9.7 Hormonal control of the level of calcium ions in the blood.

Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.

Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood IM
BA
Ca2+ levels LA
NC
E
Calcium homeostasis of blood:
BALANCE BALANCE
9–11 mg/100 ml
IM Stimulus
BA Falling blood
LA
NC
E Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH
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 Thymus

 Located in the upper

thorax
 Decreases in size
throughout adulthood
 Produces a hormone
called thymosin
 Important in developing
the immune system

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More
Glands
 Adrenal Glands

Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer
glandular region produces
corticosteroids
 Mineralocorticoids  by
outermost layer
 Glucocorticoids  by middle
layer
 Sex hormones  by innermost
layer
2. Adrenal medulla—inner
neural tissue region
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 Adrenal Glands

Hormones of the adrenal

cortex
 Mineralocorticoids
(mainly aldosterone)
 Produced in outer
adrenal cortex
 Regulate Na+ and K+ in
blood
 Regulate water and
electrolyte balance
 Target organ is the
kidney
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 Adrenal Glands

 Adrenal cortex: Aldosterone

 Release stimulated by:
 Too little Na+ or too much K+ (in the
blood)
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Renin and angiotensin II (b/c blood
pressure drop)
 Response to trauma
 Inhibited by:
 atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

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 Adrenal Cortex

 Glucocorticoids (cortisone &

cortisol)
 middle layer of cortex
 Facilitates metabolism of fats &
proteins  glucose
 Released due to long stress/trauma,
low glucose
 Anti-inflammatory properties
 Released in response to increased
ACTH

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 Adrenal Cortex

 Sex hormones
 Produced in the inner
layer of cortex
 Small amounts
 Most are androgens
(male sex hormones),
but some estrogens
(female sex hormones)
are also formed

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 Adrenal Glands

 Adrenal medulla
 Produces (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
 Prepare the body to deal with short-term stress by:
 Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose
 Dilating small passageways of lungs
 Sympathetic stimulation

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Figure 9.10 Roles of the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla, and adrenal cortex in the stress response.

Short term Stress More prolonged

Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary

ACTH Adrenal
Preganglionic cortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers

Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

Short-term stress response Long-term stress response

Catecholamines 1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats
(epinephrine and 2. Increased blood pressure and water by converted to glucose
norepinephrine) 3. Liver converts glycogen to kidneys or broken down for
glucose and releases glucose 2. Increased blood energy
to blood volume and blood 2. Increased blood sugar
4. Dilation of bronchioles pressure 3. Suppression of
5. Changes in blood flow patterns, immune system
leading to increased alertness
and decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate

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Pancreas & Gonads
 Pancreatic Islets

 Pancreas
 Located close to stomach
 Endocrine and exocrine functions
 The islets of Langerhans produce hormones
 Insulin—made by beta cells
 Glucagon—made by alpha cells
 These are antagonists = maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
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 Pancreatic Islets

 Insulin
 Released when blood glucose levels are high
 Increases glucose uptake and metabolism
 Effects are hypoglycemic
 Glucagon
 Released when blood glucose levels are low
 Stimulates the liver to convert glycogen  glucose
increasing blood glucose levels

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 BioFlix™: Homeostasis

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Figure 9.12 Regulation of the blood glucose level by a negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic hormones.
Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells.

Insulin-secreting Insulin Tissue cells

cells
of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
the blood.
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes.
IMB as glycogen.
ALA
Stimulus NC
E
Blood glucose
BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level
level (e.g., after
eating four jelly (about 90 mg/100 ml)
doughnuts) Stimulus
IMB Blood glucose
ALA level (e.g., after
NC
Blood glucose rises E skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes.

Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks
activated; release
down glycogen
Liver glucagon into blood.
stores and
releases glucose Glucagon
to the blood.
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 Gonads

 Gonads
 Produce sex cells
 Produce sex hormones

 Male gonads- suspended

Outside the pelvic cavity
 Female gonads-
Inside the pelvic cavity

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 Gonads

 Ovaries
 Produce eggs
 Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
 Testes
 Produce sperm
 Produce androgens, such as testosterone

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 Gonads

 Estrogens
 Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
 Mature the female reproductive organs
 With progesterone, estrogens also:
 Promote breast development
 Regulate menstrual cycle

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 Gonads

 Progesterone
 brings about the menstrual cycle
 implantation of an embryo
 prepares breasts for lactation

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 Gonads

 Testes
 Produce several androgens
 Testosterone is the most important androgen
 adult male secondary sex characteristics
 Promotes growth and maturation reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production

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Tables

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Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (1 of 4).

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Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (2 of 4).

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Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (3 of 4).

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Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (4 of 4).

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (1 of 3).

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (2 of 3).

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (3 of 3).

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Other Tissues &
Organs

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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs

 Stomach-secretes hormones targeting itself

 Small intestine (duodenum)- secretes hormones
targeting organs in the digestive system
 Adipose tissue
 Leptin- targets the brain to suppress appetite

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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs

 Kidneys- erythropoietin produced to stimulate

production of red blood cells
 Heart- atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) , hormone
prevents the release of aldosterone in order to
reduce blood volume & pressure.

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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs

 Placenta
 Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
 Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in
 Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
 Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
for childbirth

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Development &
Disorders

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 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System

 Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually

decreases with aging, which leads to:
 Diabetes mellitus
 Immune system depression
 Lower metabolic rate
 Decreasing function of female ovaries leads to
menopause

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 Diseases/Disorders

 Diabetes mellitus-either can’t produce

insulin(type1) or the body can’t doesn’t respond
to it properly (type2)
 Diabetes insipidus- hyposecretion of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), water imbalance, intense thirst,
high volume of urine output

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 Diseases/Disorders

 Cushing’s Syndrome-
hypersecretion of
glucocorticoids, often
caused by a tumor
 Addison’s Disease-
hyposecretion of cortisol
bronze skin color,
hypoglycemia, and a
reduced ability to cope
with stress (burnout)

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 Disease/Disorder

 Pituitary dwarfism-
hyposecretion of growth
hormone during childhood
leads to small stature.
 Goiter- enlargement of the
thyroid due to iodine
deficiency

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Slide 1

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4

DNA

mRNA
5
New
protein

Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 2

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone
1

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 3

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 4

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 5

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4

DNA

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 6

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4

DNA

mRNA
5

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 7

Figure Steroid
9.1a Mechanisms
Cytoplasm of hormone action.
Nucleus
hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4

DNA

mRNA
5
New
protein

Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6

(a) Direct gene activation

 Slide 1

Figure 9.1b Mechanisms

Hormone (first
of hormone
Cytoplasm action.
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP

1 2 3

Second
cAMP messenger

4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

(b) Second-messenger
system
 Slide 2

Figure 9.1b Mechanisms

Hormone (first
of hormone
Cytoplasm action.
messenger)

Receptor
protein

(b) Second-messenger
system
 Slide 3

Figure 9.1b Mechanisms

Hormone (first
of hormone
Cytoplasm action.
messenger)
Enzyme

1 2

Receptor
protein

(b) Second-messenger
system
 Slide 4

Figure 9.1b Mechanisms

Hormone (first
of hormone
Cytoplasm action.
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP

1 2 3

Second
cAMP messenger

Receptor
protein

(b) Second-messenger
system
 Slide 5

Figure 9.1b Mechanisms

Hormone (first
of hormone
Cytoplasm action.
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP

1 2 3

Second
cAMP messenger

4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

(b) Second-messenger
system
 Hypothalamic
Figure 9.4 Hormones
Optic
released by the neurosecretory
cells
posterior pituitary
chiasma and their target organs.
Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
 Hypothalamic
Figure 9.4 Hormones
Optic
released by the neurosecretory
cells
posterior pituitary
chiasma and their target organs.
Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
Figure 9.6acartilage
Thyroid The thyroid gland. Epiglottis

Common carotid
artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland

Trachea Left subclavian

artery
Brachiocephalic Left lobe of
artery thyroid gland

Aorta

(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior

view
Figure 9.8 Microscopic structure of the
adrenalAdrenal
gland.
gland
Capsule
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area

Cortex
Adrenal gland Adrenal
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex

Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla
 Decreased Na+ or

Figure 9.9 Major mechanisms controlling

increased K+ in
blood
Stress

Hypothalamus
aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.
Decreased
blood volume
Corticotropin-
releasing
and/or blood hormone
pressure Anterior pituitary

Increased
blood pressure
ACTH or blood volume
Kidney

Renin
Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II

Direct
stimulating Inhibitory
effect effect

Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex

Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules

Increased absorption Increased blood

of Na+ and water; volume and
increased K+ excretion blood pressure