CHAPTER 5

MOTIVATION
 Employer are vitally interested in three elements:

Motivation 1.
2.
Direction and focus of the behavior
Level of the effort
3. Persistence of the behavior
 The Model of Motivation

Environment Opportunity

Needs and
drives Tension Effort performance Rewards

Goals and Ability

incentives

Need
Satisfaction
 Motivational Drives
Motivational drives are the cultural environment in
which they live and these drives affect the way
people view their jobs and approach their lives.

Types of motivational drives

• Achievement motivation
• Affiliation motivation
• Power motivation
 Motivational Drives
• Achievement Motivation: Achievement motivation is
a drive wishes to achieve objectives and advance up
the ladder of success.
• Affiliation Motivation: Affiliation motivations
concern over establishing, maintaining, or restoring
a positive affective relationship with another
person or group of persons.
• Power Motivation: The power motivations the dire
to have impact on other people , to affect their
behaviour or emotions.
Managerial application of the drives:
• Knowledge of the difference among the three
motivational drives require manager to think
contingency and understand the work attitude
of each employees. They can then deal with
employees differently according to the
strongest motivational drive that they identify
in each employee.
 What Managers Are Reading

The secret lies in giving employees the three major

rewards that they want from work :
* Fair treatment (job security, adequate,
compensation ,and respect)
* Sense of achievement (purpose ,enablement,
challenge ,feedback and recognition)
* Companionship (teamwork)
 What Is Need?
Is something thought to be a necessity or an essential
item required for life .That means something you have
to have .
Types of Needs:
(i)Primary Needs (Basic Needs),
(ii)Secondary Needs (Psychological Needs).
 Primary Needs
(i) Primary needs are essential to human life.
(ii) Human can't live without primary needs.
(iii) This needs arise from the basic requirements of life .
(iv) Needs that arise from the internal body state .
(v) Required for the survival of the human race.

Examples of Primary Needs - Food ,Water ,Sex ,Sleep ,Air,

Reasonably comfortable temperature and oxygen for breathing
.
 Secondary Needs
(i) The Secondary needs are the needs that remain even after
the primary needs are satisfied.
(ii)Secondary needs are wants or acquired needs they are more
like desire.
(iii) The secondary needs also include activities and
entertainment.
(iv) Concerned with emotional satisfaction.
(v) Has no specific origin in the body.

Examples of Secondary Needs- Safety, love, Respect, Creativity ,Self

esteem ,Sense of duty ,Competitiveness ,Self-assertion ,To
giving, Belonging and Receiving affection .
What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational model of

human needs ,often depicted as hierarchical levels within a
pyramid. This means that in order for motivational to arise at
the next stage .
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards ,the needs are :
Physiological ,Safety ,Love and belonging ,Esteem ,Self
actualization .
Sections Of Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs focuses attention on five
levels. This hierarchy is briefly presented and then
interpreted in the following sections.
(1) Lower-Order needs –
physiological , safety.
(2) Higher-Order needs-Social,
Esteem ,Self-Actualization.
Limitations
• Every individual is different from each other
• Not all employees are governed by same set of needs
• Each one driven by different needs at same point of
time
• The theory is not empirically supported
• The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist’s
as even if the artist’s basic needs are not satisfied , he
will still strive for recognition and achievement.
 Herzberg Two Factor Model

High
High positive
negative Neutral feelings
feelings

(Absence) Maintenance Factor

(Present)
Ex: Company policy, salary, security.

(Absence) Motivational Factor

(Present)
Ex: Recognition ,Achievement.
 Job content :
 Directly related to the environment surrounding the job.

Job context :
 Directly related to the job itself.

Intrinsic Motivators:
 Internal rewards like self motivated.

Extrinsic motivators:
 External rewards like health insurance, vacations, retirement plan.
Interpreting the two factor model:
• Broadened managers perspectives by showing potential role of intrinsic
reward.
• Manager cannot neglect wide range of factor that create neutral work
environment .

Limitations:
• Not universally applicable because it suitable best for upper level white-collar
employees.
• Outlines only general tendencies.
 Alderfer’s ERG Model
In ERG theory Clayton Alderfer developed a new
model to modified need hierarchy. Alderfer
compressed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs from five to
three.

Relatedness

Existence Growth

ERG
Model
 • are combination of physiological and
Existence security factors.
• It includes basic material existence, like
Needs pay, security.

• are desires for satisfying interpersonal

Relatedness relationships.
• It includes interpersonal connections,
Needs social status and recognition.

• are involve the desire for both self-esteem

Growth & self-actualization.
• It includes personal development like
Needs creative and meaningful work.
 Comparison of the Maslow, Herzberg, &
Alderfer Model
Maslow’s Hierarchy Herzberg’s Two- Alderfer’s ERG
of Needs Factor Model Model
It is a motivational theory There are some job factors It is modified need of
in psychology of human that results in satisfaction hierarchy that overcome
needs. while some create some weakness of
dissatisfaction. Maslows’ model.
Includes five levels of Concludes two separate Suggests three satisfying
need- physiological, safety, sets of factors- needs- existence,
social, esteem, self- maintenance & relatedness, growth.
actualization. motivational factors.
Focuses on human need Relies on reward and Focuses that needs differ
and satisfaction. recognition. from person to person.
Research hasn’t supported Not universally applicable, Difficult to evaluate which
the presence of five need it applies best to upper of the three needs is more
levels for all. level of employees. important to a person.
 Behaviour Modification

Content Theories: Give importance on the internal needs

of employees and how they change overtime.
Such as Maslow’s theory, Herzberg’s theory and Alderfer’s
theory.

Difficulty: To measure individual employee’s needs.

To recover this difficulty managers can use process

theories.
 Behaviour Modification

Process theories: Provide perspective of dynamics by

which employees can be motivated.
Such as Organizational Behaviour Modification shortly
known as OB Mod which relies heavily on the law of
effect, expectancy model, equity model etc.

Law of Effect
• Reinforces favourable behaviours by providing
favourable consequences.
• Punishes unfavourable behaviours by providing
unfavourable consequences.
 Behaviour Modification
Organizational Behaviour Modification: Organizational
behaviour modification shortly known as OB Mod relies heavily
on the law of effect, which states two things:

• A person tends to repeat behaviour accompanied by

favourable consequences.
• A person tends not to repeat behaviour accompanied by
unfavourable consequences.
 Behaviour Modification
Examples: Increasing commissions for increasing extra
units of sales or giving rewards for good performance,
thanking, praising etc. This energies the repetition of
good behaviour by favourable consequences.
And also arranging overtime or giving pressure to those
employees who are lazy or are not well aware of their
duties. And this bounds those not to repeat
unfavourable behaviour.
 Behaviour Modification
Law of effect comes from learning theory.

Learning theory: We can learn well under the

pleasant surroundings.
A special type of learning theory is social learning or
vicarious learning, which gives importance to the
learning accompanied by observing the works of
others and understanding the consequences of
others.
 Behaviour Modification
Four components of Organizational Behaviour
Modification:
1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement
3. Punishment
4. Extinction
The brief descriptions of those four components are
stated below.
Positive Reinforcement: Giving rewards to encourage
repetition of behaviour.
 Behaviour Modification
Examples: Increasing commissions of high sellers,
thanking and praising in front of other employees or at
the company meeting etc.
Shaping is one of the positive reinforcement in which
the supervisor or manager encourages or reinforces an
employee when he has already done any given complex
task successfully but has not completed the whole yet
or partially done the work or almost done the work.

The purpose is to complete the alloted task fully.

 Behaviour Modification
Negative reinforcement: Removal of unwanted
consequences, because an employee has improved his
behaviour. This also encourages employees to be
obedient to their works or not to escape from their
duties.

Example: Withdrawing overtime for those employees

who have already improved their performance, timely
submitted their reports or completed target sales
volume in time.
Punishment: Punishment is an undesirable
consequence an employee receives for bad
behavior. This can involve actions like
demoting the employee punishment may be
necessary occasionally to discourage an
undesirable behavior.
Example: A child fights with her brother and
has her favorite toy taken away.

Limitation: Punishment may be unclear.

Extinction: Extinction is the withholding of
significant positive consequences that were
previously provided for a desirable behavior. Such
desirable learned behavior needs to be reinforced to
encourage the person to repeat the action in the
future.

Example: You believe that chocolate is

maintaining a child tantrum throwing behavior, but
in reality it is the attention the child receives from
his mother .in this case ,withholding chocolate will
not extinguish the child tantrums.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Managers should monitor
employee behavior to learn how often, or how
well ,employees are performing. The frequency of the
behavior creates a baseline against which improvements can
be compared.

Reinforcement may either continuous or partial.

 Continuous reinforcement: continuous reinforcement
occurs when a rein forcer accompanies each correct behavior
by an employee. Examples: payment of employees for each
acceptable item then they produce.

Partial reinforcement: Occurs when only some of the

correct behaviors are reinforced-either after a certain time or
after a number of correct responses .The four types of partial
reinforcement schedules: fixed- Interval, variable-interval,
fixed-ratio and variable ratio.
Interpreting Behavior Modification: The
major benefit of behavior modification is that it
makes managers become more conscious
motivation. Application of this process often
encourages effective supervisors to devote more
time to monitoring employee behaviors.

Limitations: Behavior modifications has been

criticized on several grounds, including its
philosophy methods and practicality. Because of the
strong power of desired consequences, the use of
behavior modification may effectively force people
to change their behavior.
Who will control the controllers?
 Goal setting theory
Goal provide a directional nature to people behavior and guide
their thought , believe and action to one outcome rather than
another.

 Goals are target and objectives for future performance.

employee performance could be improved through goal setting.
 A major factor in the success of goal is self efficacy .self efficacy
can be judge either on a specific task or variety of performance
duties .If employee have higher self efficacies they will tend to
set higher personal goal under the belief that they are
attainable .

The first key to successful goal setting is to build and reinforce .

Employee self efficacy.
Elements of goal setting theory

• Goal acceptance : Goals need to

understood as well as acceptance.

• Specificity : Goals need to be as

specific ,clear and measurable.

• Challenge : Difficult goals present a

challenge to the employee.
 Performance monitoring and
feedback.

• Performance monitoring : observing behavior,

inspecting outcome ,or studying documents of
performance indicators.

• Performance feedback : the timely provision of

data or judgment regarding task related results.
 Expectancy Model
• It says individuals have different sets of
goals and can be motivated if they have
certain expectations.

• First proposed by Victor H, Vroom of the

Yale school of management.
 Valence
• The strength of a person performance for receiving a reward.
• It ranges for -1 to +1.
• Manager gather specific information
about individual employees. Strong avoidance Indifference strong
preference

-1 0 +1

Examples :
• An employee strongly wants promotion (High Valence +1)
• An employee indifference about promotion (indifference 0)
• An employee does not wants promotion (Low Valence -1)
 Expectancy
• It is the strength of belief that ones work related effort will result in
competition of a task.
• It is the probability of connection between effort and performance.
• It ranges from 0 to 1 Low probability high probability

0 +1

• If an employee sees no chances that effort will lead to the desired

performance then the expectancy will 0 means low
probability.
• If the employee is totally confident that the effort will lead to the desired
performance accomplished then the expectancy has a value of 1 means high
probability.
 Instrumentality
• If represents the employees belief that a reward will be received once the
task is accomplished.
• It is the probability of connection between performance and reward.
• It ranges for 0 to 1
• If you perform well a valued
outcome will be received. low probability high probability

0 +1

Example:
• If an employee sees promotions are based on performance data then the
instrumentality will be rated high (+1).
• If an employee sees promotion are based on managerial favoritism then
the instrumentality will rated (-1).
 How the model works
The multiplicative combination that produces the strongest motivation is
high positive high valence , high expectancy and high instrumentality. If
desire for a reward is high, but either of the probability estimates is low,
then motivation will likely be moderate, at best. If both expectancy and
instrumentality are low, then motivation will be weak even if the reward
has high valence.

Example: Marty Flumer, age 31, works as a welder in a large factory. Flumer has vey
strong desires (High valence) to be in white collar instead of his parent job, which he no
longer enjoys . Flumer recognizes that good welding will result in high performance
appraisals by his supervisors (high expectancy). However, all white- collar jobs in the
plant require a college degree, and Flumer has only a high school diploma. Because of
this barrier, Flumer’s instrumentality estimates is low. Being a good welder will not result
in promotion to the desired position. Despite his strong desire for something, he sees no
viable way to achieve it and, therefore, is not motivated to perform his job better.
 The Impact of Uncertainty
The connection between effort and outcome is often uncertain
cause many outcomes are controlled by others and the
employees cannot sure how others will act for employees.
Types of outcomes
Primary outcomes: Results directly from an action.
Example: An employee secures more training and eventually earns
the primary outcome of a promotion and the pay that goes with
it.
Secondary Outcomes : it follows the primary ones.
Example: When the promotion is given it brings him or her more
status and the higher pay allows him or her family to purchase
more products and service they want.
Interpreting the Expectancy Model
Advantages :
1. Managers can known about each individuals internal belief, perception,
needs and potentialities.
2. This model reflects theory Y which values human activities
3. Effective communication between managers and employees help employee
to become more realistic even they can not receive the desired rewards.
Limitations:
4. Difficulty to develop relatable measure of valence , expectancy and
instrumentality.
5. Difficulty in learning about what employees perceive and why they hold
those three components.
6. It is a time consumable process .
7. Sufficient resources for expected rewards may not be remained.
 Equity Model
• Balancing Employee Inputs and Outputs.
• Focuses on people’s perceptions of the
fairness(or lack of fairness) of their work
outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.
 Understanding The Model
• John Stacey Adams

• Acknowledges that subtle and variable factors

affect an employee’s assessment and
perception of their relationship with their
work and their employer.
 How to Apply The Equity Model
• Inputs Typically Include: • Intangibles Typically
• Effort Include:
• Loyalty • Recognition
• Hard work • Reputation
• Commitment • Responsibility
• Skill • Praise
• Ability • Job security
• Flexibility
• Determination
 Equity Theory
Condition Person Referent Example

Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Outcomes
Outcomes == Outcomes
Outcomes more
more inputsbut
inputs butalso
also
Equity
Equity Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
than
thanreferent
referent

Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Underpayment
Underpayment Outcomes
Outcomes << Outcomes
Outcomes more
more inputsbut
inputs butalso
also
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets the same outputs
gets the same outputs
Equity
asasreferent
referent

Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Overpayment
Overpayment Outcomes
Outcomes >> Outcomes
Outcomes same
same inputsbut
inputs butalso
also
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets more outputs
gets more outputs
Equity
than
thanreferent
referent

Table 13.3 13-45

 Equity Theory
• Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in
workers causing them to attempt to restore equity.
– In underpayment, workers may reduce input levels to
correct (rebalance) the ratio or seek a raise.
– In overpayment, workers may change the referent
person and readjust their ratio perception.
– If inequity persists, workers will often choose to leave
the organization.

13-46
 Key Points
• The idea behind this theory is to strike a
healthy balance here, with outputs on one
side of the scale ; inputs on the other both
weighing in a way that seems reasonably
equal.
 Thank
You for
your
Attention