Autonomic Nervous System:
Structure and Function
Introduction to the Nervous System
Introduction to the Nervous System
● The nervous system is divided into two main regions:
● Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial nerves (12 pairs) and spinal
nerves (31 pairs)
● PNS is further divided into:
● Sensory fibers: Carry signals from sensory receptors to CNS
● Motor fibers: Divided into Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS)
● ANS: Carries motor signals from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
● Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Structural Classification of Neurons
● Multipolar neurons:
● Several dendrites and one axon
● All motor neurons are multipolar
● Bipolar neurons:
● One main dendrite and one axon
● Found in retina, inner ear, and olfactory area of the brain
● Unipolar neurons:
● Dendrites and axon fused into a continuous process
● Sensory neurons from skin are unipolar
Functional Classification of Neurons
● Afferent neurons (sensory neurons):
● Transmit impulses from sensory receptors to CNS
● Efferent neurons (motor neurons):
● Transmit impulses from CNS to effector tissues
● Multipolar in structure
● Interneurons:
● Located within CNS between sensory and motor neurons
● Integrate and process sensory information
● Elicit motor responses by activating appropriate motor neurons
Synapses: Junction Between Neurons
● Two types of synapses:
● Electrical synapses:
● Neurons connected by gap junctions
● Allow direct ion flow between cells
● Rare in human nervous system
● Chemical synapses:
● Most common in nervous system
● Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons separated by synaptic cleft
● Communication via neurotransmitters
Chemical Synapse Transmission
● Action potential reaches axon terminal
● Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open
● Ca²⁺ enters the cell
● Neurotransmitter released from synaptic vesicles via exocytosis
● Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft
● Binds to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
● Changes postsynaptic potential
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Overview
● Consists of:
● Sensory neurons: Conduct impulses from visceral organs to CNS
● Motor neurons: Conduct impulses from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands
● Involuntary action
● Two-neuron motor pathway:
● Preganglionic neuron: Cell body in CNS
● Postganglionic neuron: Cell body in autonomic ganglion
● Two divisions: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Division (Thoracolumbar)
● Preganglionic neuron cell bodies: Thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord (T1-
L2)
● Ganglia:
● Sympathetic chain ganglia: Outside vertebral column
● Prevertebral ganglia: Around abdominal aorta branches
● Characteristics:
● Short preganglionic fibers, long postganglionic fibers
● One preganglionic neuron synapses with many postganglionic neurons
● Widespread effects on multiple organs
● Dominant in stress situations ("fight or flight" response)
Parasympathetic Division (Craniosacral)
● Preganglionic neuron cell bodies:
● Brainstem nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
● Lateral horn of sacral spinal cord segments S2-S4
● Ganglia: Close to or within visceral effectors
● Characteristics:
● Long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers
● One preganglionic neuron synapses with few postganglionic neurons
● Localized effects on specific organs
● Dominant in relaxed situations (normal functioning)
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Effects
Organ
Sympathetic Response
Parasympathetic Response
Heart
Increase rate
Decrease rate
Bronchioles
Dilate
Neurotransmitters of ANS
● Acetylcholine (ACh):
● Released by cholinergic fibers
● All preganglionic fibers (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
● All parasympathetic postganglionic fibers
● Sympathetic postganglionic fibers to sweat glands
● Norepinephrine (NE):
● Released by adrenergic fibers
● Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers
Receptors for Autonomic Neurotransmitters
● Cholinergic receptors (for ACh):
● Nicotinic receptors
● Muscarinic receptors
● Adrenergic receptors (for NE and epinephrine):
● Alpha (α) receptors: α₁ and α₂
● Beta (β) receptors: β₁, β₂, and β₃
Receptor Distribution and Effects
● Nicotinic receptors: On all postganglionic neurons
● Muscarinic receptors:
● On visceral effector cells innervated by parasympathetic system
● On sweat glands innervated by sympathetic system
● α and β receptors:
● On visceral effector cells innervated by sympathetic system
● Some cells have both α and β receptors
● Norepinephrine: Stimulates α more strongly than β
● Epinephrine: Potent stimulator of both α and β
Adrenal Medulla
● Part of sympathetic nervous system
● Chromaffin cells: Modified sympathetic postganglionic neurons
● Releases hormones directly into bloodstream:
● 20% Norepinephrine
● 80% Epinephrine
● Effects last longer (about 30 minutes) than neural stimulation
● Hormones collectively called catecholamines
Termination of Neurotransmitter Activity
● Three main mechanisms:
● Reuptake into the neuron
● Enzymatic degradation
● Diffusion out of the synapse
Acetylcholine Termination
● Primary mechanism: Enzymatic degradation
● Enzyme: Cholinesterase (acetylcholinesterase)
● Process:
● Acetylcholine broken down into choline and acetate
● Occurs in less than 1 millisecond
● One of the fastest-acting enzymes in the body
Norepinephrine Termination
● Primary mechanism: Reuptake into sympathetic neuron
● Secondary mechanisms:
● Intraneuronal metabolism by monoamine oxidase (MAO)
● Diffusion out of the synapse
Catecholamine Inactivation
● Circulating epinephrine and norepinephrine
● Inactivated primarily in the liver
● Enzyme: Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
Clinical Relevance: Autonomic Drugs
● Cholinergic drugs: Mimic or enhance ACh effects
● Examples: Bethanechol, Pilocarpine
● Anticholinergic drugs: Block ACh effects
● Examples: Atropine, Scopolamine
● Adrenergic drugs: Mimic or enhance NE/epinephrine effects
● Examples: Phenylephrine, Albuterol
● Antiadrenergic drugs: Block NE/epinephrine effects
● Examples: Prazosin, Propranolol
Summary: ANS Function and Importance
● ANS maintains homeostasis through involuntary control
● Sympathetic division: "Fight or flight" response
● Parasympathetic division: "Rest and digest" functions
● Balance between divisions crucial for normal bodily function
● Understanding ANS essential for:
● Diagnosing autonomic disorders
● Developing targeted therapies
● Managing side effects of medications affecting ANS
