NETWORKING

Characteristics of a Computer Network

•Share resources from one computer to another.

•Create files and store them in one computer, access those files
from the other computer(s) connected over the network.

•Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer

within the network and let other computers of the network use the
machines available over the network.
Example
 Data Communication System

• Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable,
wire or it can be air or vacuum also.

•For occurrence of data communication, communicating devices

must be a part of communication system made up of a
combination of hardware or software devices and programs.
Components of Data Communication
 Components of Data Communication

•Message :

This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message

simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be
communicated. A message could be in any form, it may be in form of a
text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

•Sender :

To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there

who will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data
communication system. It is simple a device that sends data message.
The device could be in form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop,
video camera, or a workstation, etc.
 Components of Data Communication

Receiver :

It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a

device that receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in
form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

Transmission Medium :
In entire process of data communication, there must be something
which could act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission
medium plays that part. It is physical path by which data or message
travels from sender to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided
(with wires) or unguided (without wires), for example, twisted pair
cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.
 Components of Data Communication

•Set of rules (Protocol) :

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already

designed by the designers of the communication systems, which
represent a kind of agreement between communicating devices. These
are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules
that govern data communication. If two different devices are connected
but there is no protocol among them, there would not be any kind of
communication between those two devices. Thus, the protocol is
necessary for data communication to take place.

Ex : email
 Modes of Data Communication

There are three modes of data communication

i) Simplex

ii) Half Duplex

iii) Full Duplex

 Simplex Mode of Data Communication

•In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,

i.e., the data flow in one direction.

•A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it

can receive the data but cannot send the data.
 Simplex Mode of Data Communication

• This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly

communications require the two-way exchange of
data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as
in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits
the signal to the listeners but never allows them to
transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex
mode as a keyboard can only accept the data from the
user and monitor can only be used to display the data
on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the
full capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized during transmission.
 Simplex Mode of Data Communication

Advantage of Simplex mode:

•In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel, so that more
data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
•Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-
communication between devices.
 Half Duplex Mode of Data Communication

2. Half Duplex
 Modes of Data Communication

•In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e.,

the station can transmit and receive the data as well.
•Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same
time.
•The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is
utilized in one direction at a time.
•In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error
detection, and if any error occurs, then the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit the data.
•A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party
listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party
listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted
sound which cannot be understood.
 Modes of Data Communication

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

•In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and
receive the data and also can utilize the entire bandwidth
of the communication channel during the transmission of
data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
•In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the
data, then another has to wait, this causes the delay in
sending the data at the right time.
 Modes of Data Communication

3.Full Duplex

- Communication occurs in both directions simultaneously.

- e.g a computer sending and receiving data on a network.
 Full Duplex Mode of Data Communication

3.Full Duplex

- Communication occurs in both directions simultaneously.

- e.g a computer sending and receiving data on a network.
 Full Duplex Mode of Data Communication

In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional,

i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
•Both the stations can send and receive the message
simultaneously.
•Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel
has traffic moving in one direction, and another channel
has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
•The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of
communication between devices.
•The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a
telephone network. When two people are communicating
with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
 Full Duplex Mode of Data Communication

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

•Both the stations can send and receive the data at the
same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
•If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices,
then the capacity of the communication channel is divided
into two parts.
 Line Configuration in Computer Networks

•A network is two or more devices connected through a link.

• A link is a communication pathway that transfer data from one
device to another.
•Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device that is
capable to send and receive data.
•For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time.
•There are two possible types of connections:
• Point-to-Point Connection
• Multipoint Connection
 Point to Point Line Configuration

• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use a actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two end, but other options such as microwave or satellite
links are also possible.
•Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest
and most conventional network topologies.
•It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
 Point to Point Line Configuration

Examples
•One real-life example is controlling a T.V. through an
infrared remote, which does nothing but establish a point-
to-point connection between the T.V and remote.

•Another best example is a telephone call in which there is

a point-to-point connection between 2 telephones.
 Multi Point Line Configuration

• It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or

more devices share a single link. More than two devices share the link
that is the capacity of the channel is shared now.
• With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint
Line configuration:
Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its
called Spatially shared line configuration.
Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link , then
its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line configuration.
Categories of Computer Networks
 Categories of Computer Networks

LAN(Local Area Network)

•Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a

small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
•It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters and Ethernet cables.
•The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
•Local Area Network provides higher security.
 Categories of Computer Networks

PAN(Personal Area Network)

•Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,

typically within a range of 10 meters.
•Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
•Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
•Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
 Categories of Computer Networks

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

•A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic

area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
•Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
•In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
•The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 Categories of Computer Networks

WAN(Wide Area Network)

•A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical

area such as states or countries.
•A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
•A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over
a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
•The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
•A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.
 INTERNETWORK

• A network of networks is called an internetwork or simply the internet.

• Internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs
and Home networks.
• Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing
protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4.
Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from
IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet is serving many proposes - Web sites , E-mail , Instant
Messaging , Blogging , Social Media , Marketing , Networking , Resource
Sharing , Audio and Video Streaming
 Computer Networks Advantages

Information and Resource Sharing −

•Computer networks allow organizations having units which are placed
apart from each other, to share information in a very effective manner.
• Programs and software in any computer can be accessed by other
computers linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware
equipment, like printers and scanners among varied users.

Retrieving Remote Information −

•Through computer networks, users can retrieve remote information on
a variety of topics.
•The information is stored in remote databases to which the user gains
access through information systems like the World Wide Web.
 Computer Networks Advantages

Speedy Interpersonal Communication −

• Computer networks have increased the speed and volume of
communication like never before.
•Electronic Mail (email) is extensively used for sending texts,
documents, images, and videos across the globe. Online
communications have increased by manifold times through social
networking services.

E-Commerce −
•Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and
commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce.
•Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or sell items, pay bills,
manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds and handle
investments electronically.
 Computer Networks Advantages

Highly Reliable Systems −

•Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in nature, by the
virtue of which data is stored in multiple sources.
• This makes the system highly reliable. If a failure occurs in one source,
then the system will still continue to function and data will still be
available from the other sources.

Cost–Effective Systems −
•Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment of
computer systems in organizations.
•Previously, it was imperative for organizations to set up expensive
mainframes for computation and storage. With the advent of networks,
it is sufficient to set up interconnected personal computers (PCs) for the
same purpose.
 Topologies

•The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.

•Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

topology.

•The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to
one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,
and ring
 Topologies - BUS

•The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.

•Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

topology.

•The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to
one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,
and ring
 Topologies - BUS

•Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and

network device is connected to single cable.

• It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction.

No bi-directional feature is in bus topology.

•In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are
connected to this main cable through drop lines.

•There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the
main cable.

•Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a
limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.
 Topologies - BUS

•Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop

cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
•When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts
a message over the network. All the stations available in the
network will receive the message whether it has been addressed
or not.
•The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
•The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared
to other topologies.
•The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through
which the message is broadcast to all the stations.
•The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
 BUS Topology - Advantages

•Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology, so it is

widely used to build small networks.
•Famous for LAN network because they are inexpensive and easy to
install.
•It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or
temporary.
•It is one of the passive topologies. So computers on the bus only listen
for data being sent, that are not responsible for moving the data from
one computer to others.
 BUS Topology - Disadvantages

•In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will crash
down.
•When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions in the network.
•Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too many, the
performance time of the network significantly decreases.
•Cables are always of a limited length.
 RING Topology

•In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two
neighboring devices.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number
of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node
in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
•The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
 RING Topology

•Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

•The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
•The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
•It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
•The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
•The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
•Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
•Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
 RING Topology

Working of Token passing

•A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to

computer until it reaches the destination.
•The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the
data.
•The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the destination
device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
•In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
 RING Topology

Advantages of Ring topology:

•Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.
•Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
•Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore,
the installation cost is very low.
•Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.
 RING Topology

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

•Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
•Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
•Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
•Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
 STAR Topology

•Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
•The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
•Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
•Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
•Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
 STAR Topology

Advantages of Star topology

Network control: Complex network control features can be easily

implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology
are automatically accommodated.
Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools
are cost-effective.
Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added
to the open ports on the hub.
Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
 STAR Topology

Disadvantages of Star topology

•A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then
all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.

•Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant

amount of routing is required.
 TREE Topology

•Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

•A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.

•The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.

•There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
 TREE Topology

Advantages of Tree topology

•Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
•Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
•Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
•Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
•Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
•Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 TREE Topology

Disadvantages of Tree topology

•Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it

becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
•High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
•Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
•Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.
 MESH Topology

•Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers

are interconnected with each other through various redundant
connections.
•There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
•It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as
a central point of communication.
•The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
•Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
•Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
•Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
•Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
 MESH Topology

Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers
are connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
 MESH Topology

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology:

Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces
the efficiency of the network.
 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

•The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small
pieces.

•Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set
of services to manage communications and run the applications.

•It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction

between subsystems.
 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

•It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services

from lower to higher layer without defining how the services are
implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the
other layers.

•The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from
network to network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the
service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers
of how the services are implemented.
 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

•The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and

interfaces.
•Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
•Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the
contents and order of the messages used.
•Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one
layer to another layer.
•In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication
with the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are
known as a layer-n protocol.
LAYERED ARCHITECTURE
 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

•In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one

machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the
data to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is
reached.

•Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual

communication takes place.

•In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several

small and manageable tasks.
 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE

•The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an
interface.

•A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

 Why do we require Layered architecture?

•Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a

design process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided
into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach
reduces the complexity of the design.
•Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides
the independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
•Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that
implementation in one layer can be changed without affecting other
layers.
•Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and
tested individually.
 OSI MODEL

•OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that

describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
•OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
•OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
•OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
•Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL:
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL:

•The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

•The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are implemented only in the software.

•The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and
the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper
layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

•The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.
The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware
and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and
is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical medium.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL:

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

1.Physical Layer
2.Data-Link Layer
3.Network Layer
4.Transport Layer
5.Session Layer
6.Presentation Layer
7.Application Layer
OSI MODEL:
 PHYSICAL LAYER

•The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

bits from one node to another node.
•It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
•It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
•It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
 PHYSICAL LAYER

Functions of a Physical layer:

• Transforming Bits into Signals.

•Bit Synchronization.
• Provides Physical Characteristics of the interfaces and Medium.
•Bit Rate Control. - BW
•Line Configuration.
•Transmission Mode.- Simplex , Half Duplex, Full Duplex
•Line Topology.
•Multiplexing. N input – mux – 1 i/p-DeMUX- n o/p
•Circuit Switching.
 DATA-LINK LAYER

•This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

•It defines the format of the data on the network.
•It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
•It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides
on a local network.
 DATA-LINK LAYER

It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer
It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
It also provides flow control.
Media Access Control Layer
A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
 Functions of the Data-link layer

•Framing:
•Physical Addressing:
•Flow Control:
•Error Control:
•Access Control:
•Feed Back
NETWORK LAYER
 NETWORK LAYER

•It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on
the network.
•It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
•The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
•Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
•The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IPv4 and Ipv6.
 Functions of Network Layer:

•Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network

layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
•Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
•Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
•Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved
by internet protocol (IP).
TRANSPORT LAYER
 TRANSPORT LAYER

•The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
•The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
•It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
•This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
•The two protocols used in this layer are:
•Transmission Control Protocol
•User Datagram Protocol
 TRANSPORT LAYER

Functions of Transport Layer:

1.Service-point addressing:
2.Segmentation and reassembly:
3.Connection control:
4.Flow control:
5.Error control:
SESSION LAYER
 SESSION LAYER

Functions of Session layer:

•Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that

creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it
allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
•Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer
 Presentation Layer

•A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between the two
systems.
•It acts as a data translator for a network.
•This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data
from one presentation format to another format.
•The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

•Functions of Presentation layer:

•Translation:
•Encryption:
•Compression:
APPLICATION LAYER
 APPLICATION LAYER

•An application layer serves as a window for users and application

processes to access network service.
•It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
•An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
•This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
•Functions of Application layer:
•File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):
•Mail services:
•Directory services:
TCP/IP model
 TCP/IP model

•TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication

protocols.

•It was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s.

• It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model,
namely, TCP and IP.

•TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet
Protocol.
 TCP/IP model

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are :

1.Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with
the physical transmission of data.
2.Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of
data over the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet
Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP,
and ARP.
3.Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery
of data. The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
4.Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface
of host programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all
high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
 TELNET

•The main task of the internet is to provide services to users.

•For example, users want to run different application programs at the
remote site and transfers a result to the local site. This requires a client-
server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create
a specific program for each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that
lets the user access any application program on a remote computer.
Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation
for Terminal Network.
•Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way
that a local terminal appears to be at the remote side.
FTP
 FTP

•File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol which moves

files between local and remote file systems.
• It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2 TCP
connections are used by FTP in parallel: control connection and data
connection.
 FTP

Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
between the control processes. The control connection remains
connected during the entire interactive FTP session.
Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data
types may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer
processes. The data connection opens when a command comes for
transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.
 SWITCHING
•When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside
their immediate location, messages are sent through the network of
transmission media.

•This technique of transferring the information from one computer network to

another network is known as switching.

•Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a

small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).

•Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.

•Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.

•It is operated in full duplex mode.

 SWITCHING
•When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside
their immediate location, messages are sent through the network of
transmission media.

•This technique of transferring the information from one computer network to

another network is known as switching.

•Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a

small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).

•Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.

•Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.

•It is operated in full duplex mode.

SWITCHING
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

•Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
•In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then
the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
•Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
•A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes
place.
•Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
•Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

1.Circuit establishment
2.Data transfer
3.Circuit Disconnect
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

•In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.
•It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
•Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of
data transmission.
•It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
•It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
•In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING

•Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred

as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored
and forwarded.
•In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated
path between the sender and receiver.
•The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate
nodes based on the information available in the message.
•Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
•Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the
next node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
•Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING

Advantages Of Message Switching

•Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored
in the nodes.
•Message priority can be used to manage the network.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
•The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable
them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
•The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided
by the message switching technique.
 PACKET SWITCHING

•The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in

one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
•The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
•Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
•Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
•All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
•If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.
•If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.
PACKET SWITCHING
 Approaches Of Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

•It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity.

•Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses
this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.

•The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

•In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

•Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

•Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

 Approaches Of Packet Switching:

Virtual Circuit Switching

•Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

•In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established

before the messages are sent.

•Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

•In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
 MULTIPLEXING

•Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data

streams over a single medium.

•The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and

hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

•Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows
many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

•Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)

available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component
signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many approach.
 MULTIPLEXING

Why Multiplexing?
•The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver.
The medium can only have one signal at a time.
•If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available
bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is
100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
•When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

•Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available

bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels. 90.3 guard space 90.4 -overlapping
•In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into
several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to
different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
•The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
•FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

Advantages Of FDM:

•FDM is used for analog signals.

•FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
•A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
•It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

•FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

•It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
•A Large number of modulators are required.
•It requires a high bandwidth channel.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

•Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical

signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
•Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of
light with the help of multiplexer.
•At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to
their respective destinations.
•Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
•Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical
signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted
through a fibre optical cable.
 Time Division Multiplexing

•In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the
channel is distributed among different users.
•Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time
slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
•A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
•In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
•In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle
of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each
user.
There are two types of TDM:
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
 Synchronous TDM

•In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the
fact that the device contains the data or not.
•If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
•In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
•If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
 ASynchronous TDM

•An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in
the case of Synchronous TDM.
•Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send.
Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits
only the data from active workstations.
•An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
•Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.