EnE 300: ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.0 Introduction to Environmental

Engineering

1.1
• Earth’s Surface
• Water
• Atmosphere
• Climate and Global Change
Earth

Earth, our home planet, is a

beautiful blue and white ball when
seen from outer space.
Earth is the third planet from the
Sun. It is the is the only planet
known to support life and to have
liquid water at the surface.
 Earth’s Surface
Surface Features
• ocean
• continents
• volcanoes
• mountain ranges
• volcanic islands
• faults

The Earth's surface is unique from the other planets because it is the only
one with liquid water. Water helps to make surface features such as rivers,
lakes and oceans. The moving plates of the Earth’s surface results into
earthquakes and form other surface features such as mountains and
volcanoes.
Earth is a terrestrial planet. This means it is made up of solid rock unlike a gas
giant such as Jupiter. It is the largest out of the four terrestrial planets in mass
and diameter.

Earth’s Shape

•The Earth's shape is an oblate spheroid. This means it is basically a sphere

but it bulges around the middle.
•The circumference of the Earth is about 40,000 kilometers.
•The average width of the Earth is about 12,700 km.
•The highest point on Earth is the peak of Mount Everest at 8,848 m above
sea level.
•The lowest natural point is the bottom of the Marianas Trench at 10,911
meters below sea level.
•Because of the bulge at the middle or the equator, the farthest point from
the Earth's center is the top of Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador.
Internal Structure
• Earth has an outer, solid rock layer
called the crust. Everything that lives on
Earth is on top of the crust.
•Below that is a layer of thick, semi-
liquid rock called the mantle.
•Under that is a thin liquid layer called
the outer core and then the solid iron
inner core.
•The thickness of the crust changes. On land the average is between 30-50
kilometers thick.
•Under the oceans in some places it is only 6 kilometers thick.
•The inside of the Earth is very hot, the temperature of the outer core may be as
high as 7,000 °C.
Tectonic Plates

• The Earth is the only terrestrial planet with active plate tectonics.
• Due to plate tectonics the Earth's crust basically floats on the thick
liquid rock of the mantle below.
• The crust is split up into parts called plates. These plates interact as
they move about causing earthquakes and creating volcanoes and
mountain ranges.
• The place where plates meet are called plate boundaries. There are
three types of plate boundary: constructive, destructive and transform.
• At a constructive plate boundary two plates move away from each
other, and hot magma (liquid rock) is pushed upwards through the
cracks. These kinds of boundaries make ocean rifts, undersea volcanoes
or ridges. An example of this kind of plate boundary is the island of
Hawaii.
Tectonic Plates of the Earth
•At a destructive plate boundary, two plates move towards each other. This
forms islands, volcanoes and high mountain ranges. The Himalayas were made
by this process.
•At a transform plate boundary, two plates move parallel to each other. As they
move the grind against each other. This kind of plate boundary causes
earthquakes.

Rock Formation

• Many things can change the surface of the Earth. Plate tectonics is main cause
of change but there are others such as erosion from wind and rain, erosion by
the oceans or meteorite impacts.
• There are three main types of rock that make up the Earth's surface:
• Igneous rock is made
when magma or lava from
the mantle reaches the
surface and cools. As it gets
colder it turns into rock or
solidifies.
• Sedimentary rock is made
from sediment, like sand or
small bits of other rock,
that has been crushed and
packed tightly together.
• Metamorphic rock which is
made when either of the
other two types are
changed by high or low
temperatures and
pressures.
Water
Most of the Earth is covered with water,
and almost all of that is part of the salty
oceans.

Only a small portion of the Earth's water

is fresh water. This includes such things
as rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

Freshwater is needed for drinking,

farming, washing and others.

There is also water stored as ice in the

poles. Without water, life as we know
would not exist.
Almost 3/4 of the Earth is
covered with water. Almost
all of that water is in the oceans.
Ocean water is about
3.5% salt. Imagine that if the
oceans dried up completely,
enough salt would be left behind
to build a 290-km tall and
1.6-km thick wall around the
equator. Almost all of that
salt would be ordinary table salt.
 Water Cycle
The Earth has been recycling its water for 3
billion years.

The process when water starts in a cloud,

falls as rain, travels to the ocean, and then
starts all over again is called the water cycle .

Most of the water goes to the ocean, but the

rest falls on land and eventually reaches the
ocean by a river. Then, the water evaporates
into the sky to form clouds. When the
weather is just right, rain will fall and the
whole cycle starts all over
again. The water cycle never ends because
the salty ocean water constantly supplies
fresh water to the continents.
Clouds

Clouds are the pretty white fluffs you see in the sky. They are made up of tiny water
drops. Sometimes, if the wind is fast enough, you can even watch the clouds move.

Clouds can come in all sizes and shapes. They can be near the ground or way up high.

Different types of clouds cause different kinds of weather. Sometimes clouds get dark
and scary looking when a thunderstorm or tornado is about to start.

At any given time, about half of Earth is covered by clouds. We would not have rain
without clouds.

Precipitation

Precipitation is any form of water that falls to the Earth's surface. Precipitation is
important because it helps maintain the atmospheric balance.
Without precipitation, all of the land on the planet would be desert. Precipitation helps
farmers grow crops and provides a fresh water supply for us to drink.

Precipitation can also be damaging. Too much rain can cause severe flooding and lots of
traffic accidents.

Groundwater

You have seen water in lakes, rivers, and oceans. But some water hides below the ground.
It’s called groundwater. If you travel underground deep enough, you would find that the
rocks around you are full with water. That’s deeper than the water table. This geologic
layer of rocks is called an aquifer. In dry places, the water table might be very deep, but in
moist places it is very shallow. When the water table is higher than the ground, there are
streams, rivers, and lakes on the land surface.
Water gets into an aquifer from the surface. Rainwater soaks into the ground and
flows down to the water table.

Sometimes pollution gets into groundwater. We need to be careful to protect our

water and keep it clean.

Septic tanks, city dumps, and watery waste from human activity may contaminate
groundwater. Aside many things which contribute to contamination are chemicals
found in laundry detergents.

Another very common

contaminant to ground water is
the fertilizer used in farming
which are healthy for plants,
but toxic to humans.
Rivers

Rivers are very important to Earth because they are major forces that shape the
landscape. Also, they provide transportation and water for drinking, washing, and
farming. Rivers can flow on land or underground in deserts and seas.

Rivers are part of the water cycle because water is carried downstream by rivers into
oceans. They may come from springs, melting ice, lakes, or underground. They often start
on a mountain.

Lakes

A lake is a body of water completely surrounded by land. Lakes can either by salty or fresh
water. Most lakes are in places where glaciers used to exist. When a glacier moves
forward, it carves away a deep valley and when the ice melts it forms a lake in the valley.
Other lakes are formed in craters or when a river changes its course.
Lakes are short-lived surface features because the water can sink into the ground or evaporate
into the sky. In order for a lake to remain, it must be constantly fed by a river or rainfall.

Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption

 Earth’s Atmosphere

The atmosphere surrounds

Earth and protects us by
blocking out dangerous rays
from the sun. The atmosphere is
a mixture of gases that becomes
thinner until it gradually reaches
space.

The air in the atmosphere is

essential to life because it allows
us to breathe
Layers of Atmosphere

There are five layers in the atmosphere. The

atmosphere thins out until it reaches space.

1. The troposphere is where weather occurs.

You breathe the air in the Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the

Earth's atmosphere. The temperature in the
troposphere goes down as you go higher.

Weather occurs in the Earth's troposphere

2. The stratosphere is the second layer of the
atmosphere. The temperature in the
stratosphere goes up the higher you go up.

The ozone layer is located in the

stratosphere. Ozone causes the temperature
to go up. It absorbs dangerous light from the
Sun and converts it to heat.

The stratosphere is located above the

troposphere.

Many airplanes fly in the stratosphere

because it is very stable.
3. The mesosphere is the third layer
in the atmosphere. The temperature
drops when you go higher, like it does
in the troposphere. It can get down
to - 90°C in the mesosphere. That's
the coldest part of the atmosphere.

The mesosphere starts on top of the

stratosphere. Sometimes you can see
the mesosphere by looking at the
edge of a planet.

Many rock fragments from space

burn up in the mesosphere.
4. The thermosphere is the fourth layer of the Earth's atmosphere. It is found
above the mesosphere. The air is really thin that high up. The temperature
changes with the solar activity. If the sun is active, temperatures in the
thermosphere can get up to 1,500°C or higher.

The Earth's thermosphere also includes the region called the ionosphere.

The ionosphere is a special part of the atmosphere. It is not a separate layer,

but part of the thermosphere.

Different regions of the ionosphere make long distance radio communication

possible by reflecting the radio waves back to Earth.

The thermosphere is very thin. It's where the space shuttle orbits.
5. The last layer of the
Earth's atmosphere is
the exosphere. This is
the area where atoms
escape into space.

Ozone

Ozone is made of three oxygen atoms (O3). You've probably heard of oxygen before
-- it's part of the air we breathe. The oxygen that we breathe is made up of two
oxygen atoms (O2). Add another oxygen atom, and you have ozone. When a lot of
ozone is around, you would see it as a pale blue gas. Ozone is found in two different
layers of the atmosphere, at the troposphere and at the stratosphere. Where we find
ozone in the atmosphere determines whether we consider it to be "good" or "bad”
In the troposphere, the
ground-level or "bad"
ozone is an air
pollutant that damages
human health and
plants. It is a key
ingredient in smog. In
the stratosphere, we
find the "good" ozone
that protects life on
Earth from the harmful
effects of the Sun. The
simple saying "Good
up high and bad near Driving cars and burning fossil fuels (like coal and oil) produces
by" sums up ozone in more ozone in that first layer of the atmosphere. This is what we
the atmosphere call 'bad' ozone.
It is bad because ozone helps create smog or pollution that can be harmful to
people, animals and even plants. When ozone pollution reaches high levels,
pollution alerts are put out telling people with breathing problems to stay inside.
Smog can damage lung tissues, impair an athlete's performance, increase attacks
for people with asthma, and give people headaches.

Rubber, cloth and certain paints may be damaged by ozone. Some elastic materials
can become brittle and crack.

Most of the ozone that we know about is found in the stratosphere, the second
layer of the Earth's atmosphere. Ozone forms a kind of layer in the stratosphere.
This layer shields us from the Sun's ultraviolet light. This ultraviolet light can cause
damage to people like giving them skin cancer or causing tissue damage to their
eyes. Ultraviolet light can also be bad for plants and animals.
The ozone layer would be very good at its job of protecting Earth from too
much ultraviolet radiation. However, human-released chemicals are speeding
up the breakdown of ozone, that’s why there are already "holes" now in our
ozone protection shield.
 Climate and Global Change
Greenhouse
Greenhouses are made of glass and are designed to let heat from sunshine come in
and trap it inside. The atmospheres of some planets are able to trap energy just like
a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun can enter the atmosphere, but not all of it
can easily find its way out again.

Unlike a greenhouse, planets do not have a layer of glass over them. Instead,
molecules in the atmosphere called greenhouse gases absorb the heat

Only a tiny amount of the gasses in Earth’s atmosphere are greenhouse gases. But
they have a huge effect on climate.

There are several different types of greenhouse gases, but they all have something
in common. All of them have molecules with three or more parts. The parts are
stuck together pretty loosely. These molecules can hold onto heat. This makes the
little parts wiggle back and forth.
Eventually, the molecule will release the heat.
Another greenhouse gas molecule will probably
grab onto the heat that is released. This keeps
heat near the Earth’s surface. It is called the
greenhouse effect.

Without greenhouse gases, the surface of the

Earth would be as cold as the surface of Mars.
But too many greenhouse gases can cause the
temperature to increase out of control. That’s
why it’s so warm on Venus.

The amount of greenhouse gases in Earth’s

atmosphere is increasing which is increasing the
greenhouse effect, and warming the planet.
Effects of Climate Change

Earth’s temperature is rising. During

the past 100 years, the Earth’s
temperature has risen
more than 0.6°C (1.0 °F). This may not
sound like very much but it is changing
our world.

Sea level is rising. During the 20th century, sea level rose 10-20 cm (4-8 inches). Much of
the water came from melting glaciers. In the next 100 years, sea level may rise as much
as 85 cm (33 inches). This means that houses near the coast might be flooded, wetlands
may become too wet, and coral reefs too deep to survive.

Arctic sea ice is melting. There is about half as much ice floating on the Arctic sea as
there was 50 years ago. Melting Arctic sea ice may eventually lead to global changes in
ocean currents.
Sea-surface temperatures are warming. Some animals, like corals, cannot live in warmer
seas. In the past few decades about a quarter of the world’s coral reefs have died.

More rain causes flooding in many places. As temperatures get warmer, the water cycle
speeds up. In the last ten years floods have caused three to six times more damage than
they used to.

Earth’s climate is getting warmer. It is almost certain that human activities like burning fossil
fuels, changing the way land is used, and farming are a big part of the causes of global
warming.

The air and oceans are warming. Snow and ice in Earth’s polar regions is melting. Sea level
rises because of warmer oceans and the added water from melting glaciers and snow.
Temperatures in the Arctic have risen twice as fast as the global average in the past century.
The amount of rain and snow in different regions of the world has changed too. So have
extreme weather events such as droughts, heat waves, and hurricanes.
According to computer models, more global warming is in our future. During the past 100
years Earth’s average temperature rose about 0.6° Celsius (1.0° F). During the next
hundred years computer models predict that Earth’s average temperature will rise
between 1.8 and 4.0° Celsius (3.2° and 7.2° F) according to a new report from the IPCC.

Mitigation of Climate Change

The planet is warming quickly as more greenhouse gases are added to the Earth’s
atmosphere. The warming has large impacts on people, animals, and ecosystems.

If we keep on living as we have been, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
will keep rising. The report highlights technologies that can help, such as switching energy
sources from coal to cleaner gas, nuclear power, or renewable energy. Driving only fuel-
efficient vehicles and using public transportation limit the amount of greenhouse gases
too. And bicycling and walking are always good options. In buildings, having thick
insulation and efficient appliances are good ideas.
Technologies that will be coming
soon, within the next 10 to 20 years,
are also highlighted in the report
including new hybrid and electric
vehicles, and efficient airplanes. The
report also takes a look 20 to more
than 50 years into the future at how
and when we will be able to stabilize
the amount of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere and the stop
warming the Earth

Figure: This offshore wind farm in

Denmark includes 72 turbines and
generates enough clean energy to
power 110,000 homes.