TOPIC 2

By:
Dr. Meenaloshini Satgunam
Dr. Mohamed Ansari
Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) 2nd & 3rd October 2024 (Wed-Thu)
 Properties of Materials

Properties

Mechanical Thermal Chemical Architecture

Tensile Temperature
Particle Size Pattern
Strength resistance

Coefficient of Orientation
Young's Chemical
thermal
modulus Treatment
expansion

Elongation Heat
break conductivity

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 Definition and Terminologies in
Mechanical Properties
• Force applied to • The ratio of
produce elongation to the
deformation in a gauge length of
unit area test specimen

Stress Strain

Gauge Percentage
• The original length length elongation • Increase in the
length of a
between two marks
specimen
on the test piece over
produced by
which change of
tensile load
length is determined

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 Definition and Terminologies in
Mechanical Properties
• Stress at which material • The greatest
exhibits specified stress at which a
limiting deviation from material is willing
its proportionality of to sustain an
stress to strain Proporti applied load
Yield
onal
strength
limit

Gauge Elastic
• The original length
length modulus • The ratio of tensile
stress to
between two marks
corresponding to
on the test piece over
strain below the
which change of
proportional limit
length is determined

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 Stress – strain curve (ductile
material)
Elastic limit – no
permanent deformation.
Return to origin
Yield point – maximum
point before shaping
occurs
Ultimate strength /stress –
maximum strength of the
material before necking
begins
Break – breakpoint of the
material.

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 Stress – strain curve (brittle material)

- Unpredicted rupture
- Can occur at any point of
the stress strain curve

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 Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

 Consists of two jaws

 These jaws hold and pull the extreme

ends of the test specimen t s uniform
rate.
 During the tensile testing, record any
change in length for test specimen for
applied load at various times until test
specimen fractures

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 Impact Strength
- Impact strength is directly proportion al to
toughness of material

- Toughness is the ability of the polymer to absorb

applied energy

- The higher the impact strength, the higher the

toughness

- Impact resistance – the ability of the material to

resist breaking under shock loading

IMPACT TEST

- Method to determine the behaviour of material

subjected to shock loading in bending or tension

Unit of measurement: J/m

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 Impact strength

– The energy lost by the pendulum during

breakage is the sum of energy required to:
– (i) To initiate the fracture of specimen
– (ii) To propagate fracture across specimen
– (iii) To bend the specimen
– (iv) To produce vibration in the pendulum arm

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 Impact strength

TEST METHOD
Test method for impact resistance
of plastics and electrical insulating
material
(ASTM D 256 A &B),
ASTM D 1822,
JISK – 7111 & 7112

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 Impact strength

Pendulum Impact test:-

 Charpy impact test
 Izod impact test
Test Condition:
Temperature: 23 ± 2°C
Humidity : 50 ± 5%

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Difference between Charpy and Izod
 CHARPY IMPACT TESTING

– to evaluate the relative toughness of a material

– measures the energy absorbed by a standard notched specimen while breaking under an
impact load
– to determine the notch sensitivity and impact toughness of engineering materials such as
metals, composites, ceramics, and polymers.
– standard Charpy impact test specimen is of dimension 55 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm, having a
notch machined across one of the larger dimensions
– consists of striking a suitable specimen with a hammer on a pendulum arm while the
specimen is held securely at each end. The hammer strikes opposite the notch.
– The energy absorbed by the specimen is determined precisely by measuring the decrease in
motion of the pendulum arm.

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 Charpy Testing Method

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 Factors that affect the toughness of the material

Factors that affect the toughness of the material include:

low temperatures

high strain rates (by impact or pressurization)

Stress concentrators such as voids, notches , cracks

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 •,the sample size is 55 x 10 x 10 mm with a V-notch machined in
Prepare samples the middle of the sample.

• The sample must be accurately measured with a vernier caliper

Measure samples to determine the area of the sample at the notch. This will be
required to calculate the impact strength.
• The apparatus must be calibrated by releasing the pendulum
Calibration without a sample in the machine. This determines how much
energy is absorbed by friction.
• Place sample in testing machine. The sample should be handled
Set up Sample with tongs to ensure that no body heat is transferred into the
sample or to prevent injuries with very cold or very hot
samples.
• The pendulum must then be raised to its initial position and
Position Pendulum secured with the locking mechanism

• The pendulum can be released and will then travel through the
Release the Pendulum sample, fracturing it.
• Charpy testing machines will have a dial graded in joules. The
energy absorbed must be divided by the cross-sectional area of
Note Energy the sample at the V-notch to calculate the impact strength. The
unit of impact strength is J/m2.
• If it is desired to determine the ductile-to-brittle transition
Repeat Test temperature, the tests can be repeated at multiple
temperatures to plot the impact energy vs. temperature.
• Finally, a report can be prepared to note the test procedure, the
Prepare Report standard used, and the test results.

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 Charpy curve

• Charpy specimens are tested at each

specified temperature.
• Tests can be done at various
temperatures and recorded in a graph to
form the Charpy curve and determine
the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature.
• The ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature is the temperature at which
the test specimen will start to become
more brittle than ductile.
• Material at design temperatures below
this is not recommended as it would
have an increased risk of failing in a

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brittle manner.
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 Formulas and calculations

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 ASTM Standard

 D618 – Methods of conditioning plastics and electrical insulating materials and

testing
 D647 – Practical For design of mould for test specimens of plastic moulding
matter

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 Hardness testing

Hardness Testing measures a material’s strength by determining resistance to

penetration. The Hardness Test is extremely useful in material selection because it
provides a hardness value which indicates how easily a material can be machined
and how well the material will wear. Material hardness testing is also valuable in
making decisions about treatments and coatings.
Type of Hardness Tester in Industries:-
 Brinell test
 Vicker’s hardeness test
 Rockwell hardness test

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 Hardness test

How do hardness tests work?

A hardness test is typically performed by pressing a specifically dimensioned and loaded

object (indenter) into the surface of the material you are testing. The hardness is
determined by measuring the depth of indenter penetration or by measuring the size of
the impression left by an indenter.

Hardness tests that measure the depth of indenter penetration include: Rockwell,
Instrumented Indentation Testing, and Ball Indentation Hardness

Hardness tests that measure the size of the impression left by the indenter include: Vickers,
Knoop, and Brinell

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 SELECTING THE BEST HARDNESS TEST METHOD
 How to select the test method
 The hardness test you choose should be determined by the
microstructure – e.g. the homogeneity – of the material you are
testing, as well as the type of material, the size of the part and its
condition.
 In all hardness tests, the material under the indent should be
representative of the whole microstructure (unless you attempting to
ascertain the different constituents in the microstructure). Therefore,
if a microstructure is very coarse and heterogeneous, you need a
larger impression than for a homogeneous material.

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 Hardness test

– There are four main hardness tests, each with their own set of benefits and requirements. There are different
standards for these tests, which explain the procedures and application of the hardness test in detail.

– When selecting a hardness test method, important considerations include:

– The type of material to be hardness tested
– Whether compliance with a standard is required
– The approximate hardness of the material
– The homogeneity/heterogeneity of the material
– The size of the part
– Whether mounting is necessary
– The number of samples to be tested
– The required accuracy of the result

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 Rockwell hardness
Testing
 Rockwell is a fast hardness test method
developed for production control, with a
direct readout, mainly used for metallic
materials. The Rockwell hardness (HR) is
calculated by measuring the depth of an
indent after an indenter has been forced
into the specimen material at a given load.
 Generally used for larger sample geometries

 A ‘quick test’ mainly used for metallic

materials
 Can be used for advanced tests, such as the
Jominy (end quench) test (HRC)

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 Vicker’s hardness
Testing
 Vickers is a hardness test for all solid
materials, including metallic materials. The
Vickers Hardness (HV) is calculated by
measuring the diagonal lengths of an
indent in the sample material left by
introducing a diamond pyramid indenter
with a given load. The diagonals of the
indent are measured optically in order to
determine the hardness, using a table or
formula.
 Used for hardness testing of all solid
materials, including metallic materials
 Suitable for a wide range of applications

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 Knoop hardness
Testing
 Knoop (HK) is an alternative to the
Vickers test in the micro hardness
testing range. It is mainly used to
overcome cracking in brittle
materials, as well as to facilitate the
hardness testing of thin layers. The
indenter is an asymmetrical
pyramidal diamond, and the indent
is measured by optically measuring
the long diagonal.
 Used for hard and brittle materials,
such as ceramics
 Suitable for small elongated areas,
such as coatings

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 Brinell hardness
Testing
 The Brinell hardness test is used for
hardness testing larger samples in
materials with a coarse or
inhomogeneous grain structure. The
Brinell hardness test (HBW)
indentation leaves a relatively large
impression, using a tungsten
carbide ball. The size of the indent is
read optically.
 Used for materials with a coarse or
inhomogeneous grain structure
 Used for larger samples

 Suitable for forgings and castings

where the structural elements are
large

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 Hardness
28 Scale
 Summary
29

In this topic, definitions and terminologies of

mechanical properties were discussed. Furthermore,
details about stress-strain graphs was interpreted.
Other mechanical properties such as hardness and
impact strength were discussed.

Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) 2 nd & 3rd October 2024 (Wed-Thu)