Chapter two

Hand Working Operations

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 1

 Workbench and fitting
TOOLS USED IN FITTING SHOP
Tools used in bench and fitting shop are classified as under.
1. Marking tools
2. Measuring devices and instruments
3. Supporting and Holding tools
4. Striking tools
5. Cutting tools
6. Tightening tools, and
7. Miscellaneous tools

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 2

11/03/2024
VICE
Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 3
 Sawing
HACKSAW DESIGN
• The hacksaw consists of three parts: the frame, the handle, and
the saw blade .
• Frames are either the solid or adjustable type.
• The solid frame can be used with only one length of saw blade.
• The adjustable frame can be used with hacksaw blades from 8 to
12 in. in length.
• The blade can be mounted to cut in line with the frame or at a
right angle to the frame.
• By turning the blade at right angles to the frame, you can
continue a cut that is deeper than the capacity of the frame.
• If the blade is left in line with the frame, the frame will eventually
hit the work piece and limit the depth of cut.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 4
 Straight sawing with a
hacksaw

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 5

• Most hacksaw blades are made
from high-speed steel and in
standard lengths of 8, 10, and 12
in.

Parts of a
11/03/2024 hacksaw.
Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 6
 Hand hacksaws are made in two types namely a fixed frame and
adjustable frame.
 The former possesses solid frame in which the length cannot be
changed and whereas the latter comprises the adjustable frame
which has a back that can be lengthened or shortened to hold
blades of different sizes.
 The hand hacksaws are commonly used for sawing all soft metal.

Fig. A fixed frame hacksaw

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 7
 Fig. An adjustable frame hacksaw

• The spacing of the teeth on a hand hacksaw

blade is called the pitch and is expressed in
teeth per inch of length
• Standard pitches are 14, 18, 24, and 32
teeth per inch, with the 18-pitch blade used
as a general-purpose blade.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 8
The pitch of the blade is expressed as the
number of teeth per inch.

 The hardness and thickness of a work piece determine to a

great extent which pitch blade to use.
 As a rule, you should use a coarse-tooth blade on soft
materials, to have sufficient clearance for the chips, and a fine-
tooth blade on harder materials.
 But you should also have at least three teeth cutting at any
time, which may require aMr.fine-tooth
11/03/2024 Beselamu(Msc)
blade on soft materials 9
 Filing

 The widely used hand cutting tool in workshops is the file.

 It is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting
rows of teeth.
 It is used to cut, smooth, or fit metal parts.
It is used file or cut softer metals

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 10

 . It consists of the following parts
a. The tang is the pointed part, which fitted into the handle.
b. The point is the end opposite the tang.
c. The heel is next to the handle.
 The safe edge or side of a file is that which has no teeth. It is
classified on bases of type or cut of teeth and sectional form.

11/03/2024 Fig. Parts ofMr.aBeselamu(Msc)

file 11
Size of a File
Size of a file is specified by its length
 It is the distance from the point to the heel, without the
tang.
 Files for fine work are usually from 100 to 200 mm and
those for heavier work from 200 to 450 mm in length.
Classification of Files

 The files are classified on basis of type of cuts, grade

and shapes.
 These are further sub classified as under

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 12

(A) Type of Cut
The most commonly used files according to cuts of teeth are
listed below:
(i) Single
(ii) Double and
(iii) Rasp

Fig. Types of files according

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) to cuts of teeth 13
(B) Grade of Cut
Files are cut with teeth of different grades. Those in general are
(i) Smooth
(ii) Second cut
(iii) Bastered
(iv) Rough
Cut or teeth on files
 Teeth or cuts of files can be categorized into two groups namely
single cut and double cut.
 In single cut files, the teeth are cut parallel to other across the file
at an angle of about 60° to the center line of the file.
 Such types of file are named as flats and are widely used on hard
metal.
 A double-cut file possesses two sets of teeth, the over-cut teeth
being cut at about 60° and the up cut at 75 to 80° to the center
line.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 14
 Single-cut and double-cut files are further classified according to the
coarseness or spacing between the rows of the teeth.
 In descending order of roughness, such files are listed as:
 (i) Smooth
(ii) Dead smooth
(iii) Rough
(iv) Bastard
(v) Second cut
(vi) Super smooth

(C) Classification based on shape

General classification of files based on shapes or cross sections are
Hand files
Hand files are commonly used for finishing surface work. Both faces
of the file are double cut. Either both edges are single cut or one is
uncut to provide a safe edge.
Flat files
Flat files are generally used forMr.filing
11/03/2024 flat surfaces in fitting shop. 15
Beselamu(Msc)
Triangular files
Triangular files are commonly used for filing corners between 60°
and 90°. They are double cut on all faces
Square files
Square files are commonly used for filing in corners in jobs. They
are double cut on all sides and tapers.
Round files
Round files are generally used for opening out holes and rounding
inside corners. Rough, bastard, second cut and smooth files under
15 cm in length are single cut.
Half round files
These files comprises of flat and half round sides. The flat side of
half round file is used for general work and the half round side for
filing concave surfaces. These files are double cut on the flat side.
The curved side is single cut, smooth or second cut.
Knife-edge files
These files are commonly used for cleaning out acute-angled corners. The
two 11/03/2024
faces of these files are double cut, while the edge is single cut.
Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 16
Fig. General classification of files based on shapes or cross sections
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 17
 Proper filing position.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 18
Draw filing: is a technique used for producing
smooth, square edges, particularly on pieces of metal.
The process works by moving any type of single-cut
file forwards and backwards along the length of the
material's edge.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 19

 Draw filing.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 20
 Threading
• Most internal threads produced today are
made with taps
• These taps are available in a variety of
styles, each one designed to perform a
specific type of tapping operation
efficiently.
• This unit will help you identify and select
taps for threading operations.
• Taps are used for cutting or producing
internal threads of either left or right hand
kind in nuts or pre-drilled holes Taps are
threaded externally.
• 11/03/2024
Taps are used to Mr.
cut internal threads in 21
Beselamu(Msc)
Chamfer designations for cutting
taps. Top to bottom: starting tap,
plug tap, and bottoming tap.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 22
 Fig Nomenclature of tap

11/03/2024
Fig. Types of hand taps
Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 23
 To provide cutting edges, grooves known as flutes are ground
along the threaded portion of the tap so that the thread is divided
into rows of teeth.
 The number of flutes on tap varies from two to eight whereas four
being the most common.
 The flutes acts as channels to carry away the chips formed during
tapping or cutting threads.
 Taps are may be of many types such as hand taps, machine taps,
pipe taps, solid taps, straight and bend shank taps. Hand taps are
usually made in sets of three:
(1) taper tap (2) plug tap (3) bottoming tap as shown in Fig..
 The taper tap is tapered off for 8 or 10 threads, and is used first,
cutting to the full thread gradually.
 The intermediate tap usually has two or three threads chamfered.
The second tap can finish a through hole.
 The plug tap has a full-sized un-tapered thread to the end and is
the main finishing tap.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 24
 Checking the tap for
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 25
 Tapping a thread by hand.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 26
THREAD-CUTTING DIES AND THEIR USES
• Adie is used to cut external threads on
the surface of a bolt or rod.
• Many machine parts and mechanical
assemblies are held together with
threaded fasteners, most of which are
mass-produced.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 27

Start the die with one hand.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 28
 Use both hands to turn the
threading die.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 29
 Scribing
 Scriber is a hand tool used in metal work to mark lines on work pieces, prior to
machining. sometimes called the metal worker’s pencil.
Scribing is a process of marking out
There are different kinds of scribers, which are made of hardened steel of 3-5
mm. diameter and 20 cm. long.
Its one end is pointed as sharp as possible for making scribing lines on metal
sheets. These are made up of high carbon steel and are hardened from the
front edge.

Fig. Various types of scribers

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 30
Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing)

 Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is

separated by applying a great enough force to caused the material
to fail.
 The most common cutting processes are performed by
applying a shearing force, and are therefore sometimes referred to
as shearing processes.
 When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress
in the material will exceed the ultimate shear strength and the
material will fail and separate at the cut location.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 31

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 32
 Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by
heating them to a suitable temperature and by means of a
filler metal, called solder, having liquidus temperuatre not
exceeding 450°C and below the solidus of the base material.
Though soldering obtains a good joint between the two plates,
the strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the filler
metal used. Solders are essentially alloys of lead and tin.

Soldering is normally used for obtaining a neat leak proof joint

or a low resistance electrical joint.
The most commonly used soldering methods include soldering
iron (flame or electrically heated), dip soldering, and wave
soldering. A soldering iron is a copper rod with a thin tip which
can be used for flattening the soldering material.
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 33
 Basic Operations in Soldering
lead

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 34

 Basic Operations in Soldering

For making soldered joints, following operations are required to be performed

sequentially

1. Shaping and fitting of metal parts together

two parts should be shaped to fit closely so that the space between them is
extremely small to be filled completely with solder by the capillary action.
2. Cleaning of surfaces
This is done to remove dirt, grease or any other foreign material from the
surface pieces to be soldered, in order to get a sound joint
3. Flux application Soldering cannot be done without a flux. Even if a metal is
clean, it rapidly acquires an oxide film of submicroscopic thickness due to
heat and this film insulates the metal from the solder, preventing the surface
to get wetted by solder. This film is broken and removed by the flux. The flux
is applied when parts are ready for joining.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 35

4. Application of heat and solder

The parts must be held in a vice or with special work holding

devices so that they do not move while soldering. The parts
being soldered must be heated to solder-melting and solder-
alloying temperature before applying the solder for soldering to
take place the assembly so that the heat is most effectively
transmitted to the being soldered. As soon as the heat is applied,
the flux quickly breaks down the oxide film (the insulating oxide
layer barrier between the surface and solder). Now solder is
applied which immediately melts and metal to metal contact is
established through the medium of molten solder. Finally, the
surplus solder is removed and the joint is allowed to cool.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 36

 Riveting
Riveting is a forging process that may be used to join
parts together by way of a metal part called a rivet.
The rivet acts to join the parts through adjacent
surfaces. A straight metal piece is connected through
the parts. Then both ends are formed over the
connection, joining the parts securely.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 37

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 38
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 39
11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 40
• 1. Marking Tools
These are sub classified as steel rule, circumference rule,
straight edge, flat steel square, scriber, semi-circular
protractor, divider, trammel, prick punch, center punch,
try square, bevel square, Vernier protractor, combination
set and surface gauge .
• 2. Measuring Devices
Commonly used measuring devices and instruments used
in bench and fitting shop are fillet and radius gauge,
screw pitch gauge, surface plate, try square, dial gauge,
feeler gauge, plate gauge and wire gauge.

11/03/2024 Mr. Beselamu(Msc) 41