Chapter 2

Heat Conduction

Dr. Dawit G.
Heat Diffusion Equation
 Steady-state vs Transient
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Steady state heat transfer, transient heat transfer

multidimensional - complex geometries

Steady-state heat transfer Transient heat transfer

No change with time at any Time dependence
point within the medium T = T (x, y, z, t)
T and q" remains Special case - lumped - T
unchanged with time changes with time but not
T = T (x, y, z) with location:
Usually no but T = T (t)
assumed

Heat and Mass Transfer 2 / 537

 Coordinate System

Multidimensional Heat Transfer

3
 Heat Flux Direction
• The direction of heat flow will always be
normal to an isothermal surface.

• To obtain a general relation for Fourier’s

law of heat conduction, in a medium in
which the temperature distribution is 3-
dimensional. If n is the normal to the
isothermal surface, the rate of heat
conduction can be expressed by Fourier’s
law as
In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed in terms of its
components as

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 4

 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer through a

unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
q
k=
(dT / d x ) A

Specific heat, C p Thermal conductivity, k

Ability to store thermal energy. Material’s ability to conduct heat
At room temperature, At room temperature,
C p = 4.18 kJ/kg K, water k = 0.607 W/m K, water
= 0.45 kJ/kg K, iron = 80.2 W/m K, iron

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 5

 Thermal Conductivity

• Indication of the rate at which energy is transferred by the

diffusion or lattice vibrational process
• Depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and
molecular mass and on the state of the matter
• Isotropic material - k is independent of the direction of heat
transfer, k x = k y = k z
• Laminated composite materials and wood k across grain is
different than that of along the grain

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 6

 k for Different Materials at T ∞ and P ∞
Kinetic theory of gases:

He (0.1513
W/mK)
Air (0.024 T ↑ k
W/mK) ↑
M ↑ k
↓

He(4), Air(29)

Liquids: Strong
intermolecular forces

Most liquids: T ↑

k↓
M ↑
Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 7

k↓
k - Temp. Dependency

Temp. dependency
causes considerable
complexity in
conduction analysis

k average

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 8

 Thermal Diffusivity α

• Another material property that appears in the transient heat

conduction analysis is the thermal diffusivity, which
represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as
• Thermophysicalproperties
k =Transportproperty: ρ,Cp =Thermodynamicproperties
ρCp = volumetric heat capacity (J/m 3 K)
• Thermal conductivity k represents how well a material
conducts heat, and the heat capacity Cp represents how much
energy a material stores per unit volume. Therefore, of a
material is the ratio of the heat conducted through the material
to the heat stored per unit volume.
• High α: faster spread of heat into the medium
• Small α: heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of
heat is conducted further

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 9

 Heat Diffusion Equation: Application

Problem and application

• Determine temperature distribution in a medium resulting from
conditions imposed on its boundaries
• The conduction heat flux at any point in the medium or on the
surface may be computed from Fourier’s law
• This information could be used to determine thermal stresses,
expansions, deflections
• Temperature distribution may also be used to optimize the thickness
of an insulating material or to determine the compatibility of special
coatings or adhesives used with the material

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 10

1-D HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
12 /
537
Heat and Mass Transfer 13 /
537
 General Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates

Assumptions
• Homogeneous medium • No bulk motion (advection)

Schematic
Consider an infinitesimally small element (differential) of control
volume, dx.dy.dz

Heat and Mass Transfer 14

Volumetric Properties

Generation

Storage

↓
Rate of change of the sensible/thermal energy of the
medium/volume

Heat and Mass Transfer 15

 GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

qx+ qy+ qz- qx- qy- qz-qx+dx- qy+dy- qz+dz + egdxdydz = dxdydz

Heat and Mass Transfer 16

Special Cases

Fourier-Biot equation - Isotropic

∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T e˙g
1 ∂T
+ + + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t

Diffusion equation - Transient, no heat generation

∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T 1
∂T
+ + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 α ∂t

Poisson equation - Steady-state

∂2 T ∂2 T
∂2 T e˙g
+ + + = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
Heat and Mass Transfer 17

Laplace equation - Steady-state, no heat generation

∂2 T
2
 Coordinate Systems

Cartesian coordinates T (x, y, z)

Cylindrical coordinates T (r, φ, z)

1 𝜕
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑘𝑟(𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕
+ 2 𝑘
𝜕𝑇
+
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝜕
)𝑘
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧 (
+𝑒 𝑔 =𝜌 𝐶𝑝 ) (
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 )
Spherical coordinates T (r, φ, θ)
Assignment 1

Prove?

Heat and Mass Transfer 18

 Boundary Conditions
Boundary Conditions at x = 0

Heat and Mass Transfer 19

 Problem: Diffusion Equation
1. The temperature distribution across 1 m thick wall at a certain instant of time is given as

where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a = 900 0C, b = -300 0C/m, and C = -50 0C/m2. A
uniform heat generation, q = 1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of area 10 m 2 having the properties
ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K, and cp = 4 kJ/kg . K.

a. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall (x = 0) and leaving the wall (x = 1 m).
b. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.
c. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 m.

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537
Problem: Diffusion Equation

21 /
537
 One-Dimensional, Steady-State

• Temp. gradients exist along only a single coordinate direction.

• Heat transfer occurs exclusively in that direction
• Temp. at each point is independent of time

Contents
• Temp. distribution & heat transfer rate in common (planar,
cylindrical and spherical geometries
• Thermal resistance
• Thermal circuits to model heat flow

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 22

 Cartesian Coordinates: T ( x )

For 1-D, steady-state

conduction in a plane wall
with no heat generation,
heat flux is a constant,
independent of x.

If k is constant then, T (x) = C 1 x + C2

T (0) = T s,1 and T (L) = T s,2

x
T (x) = (T s,2 − T s , 1 ) + T s,1
L

23 /
537
 Thermal Resistance

Under steady state condi

Conduction rate = Convection rate
Convection rate =
tions : through the wall from the wall
into the wall

The thermal resistance for radiation - radiation exchange between the surface and its surroundings:

The radiation heat transfer coefficient, h r :

 Thermal Resistance
The Composite Wall

If U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

The Composite Wall

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537
Exercise

27 /
537
Example: composite wall
Example: composite wall
Example: composite wall
 Cylinder

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 31

 Cylinder
• To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we introduce the following boundary conditions:

Heat and Mass Transfer 32

Cylinder

33
 The Sphere
Consider a hollow sphere, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at different temperatures.
 Problem: r e c t a n g u l a r , c y l i n d r i c a l a n d Sphere
1. Find the heat flow rate through the composite wall as shown in fig.
assume one dimensional flow

2. Find the heat transfer per unit area through the composite wall in Fig.
Assume one-dimensional heat flow. Follow same procedure. Almost the same

3. Steam at 320°C flows 1 in a cast iron pipe (k = 80 W/m·°C) whose inner and outer diameters are 5 cm and 5.5 cm,

respectively. The pipe is covered with 3-cm-thick glass wool insulation with (k = 0.05 W/m.°C). Heat is lost to the
2
surroundings at 5°C by natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of 18 W/m 2 °C.
Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be 60 W/m 2 °C, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per
unit length of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drops across the pipe shell and the insulation.

4. A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 80 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is
covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is
exposed to ambient air at 310 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 W/m 2 K. The latent heat of vaporization and the
density of the liquid nitrogen are 2 × 105 J/kg and 804 kg/m3 , respectively. Thermal conductivity of evacuated silica powder (300
K) is 0.0017 W/m K.
 The Critical Radius of Insulation
• Addition of insulating material on a surface will always bring about a decrease in the
heat transfer rate.
• There are instances when the addition of insulation to the outside surface of the
cylindrical or spherical wall doesn’t reduces the heat loss.
• It actually increase the heat flow up to a certain thickness of insulation.
• The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the insulation layer but it
also decreases the convection resistance of the surface because of the increase in the
outer surface area for convection.
Assumption
• Steady state condition
• 1D heat flow only in the radial direction
• Neglecting thermal resistance due to cylindrical wall
• Negligible radiation exchange b/n outer surface of insulation and
surroundings. The heat transmission can be expressed

• The effect of insulation thickness can be found by differentiating the

total resistance
• dR t /d r2 = 0
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537
 The Critical Radius of Insulation

Rt=

dR t /d r2 = 0

d/d r2 = d/d r2[ ]

r1 = constant and r2 = varies

-1/r22*1/2πh L + 1/2πKL*1/r1*r1 /r2 = 0
1/r2 = h/k
r2 = k/h

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 37

 Problem

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 38

 Sphere: Critical Radius
• The discussions above can be repeated for a sphere, and it can be shown in a
similar manner that the critical radius of insulation for a spherical shell is.

• Where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h is the convection heat
transfer coefficient on the outer surface.
Problem: Critical Radius
• A 3 mm diameter and 6 m long electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 2 mm thick plastic cover whose
thermal conductivity is k = 0.15 W/m K. Electrical measurements indicate that a current of 10 A passes
through the wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V along the wire. If the insulated wire is exposed to a
medium at 27◦C with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 12 W/m 2 K, determine the temperature at the
interface of the wire and the plastic cover in steady operation. Also determine whether doubling the
thickness of the plastic cover will increase or decrease this interface temperature. Also determine critical
radius at which rate of heat transfer is maximum. Ans: 89.5 ◦C, 77.5◦C 39

Hint: qr = V I
 Overall

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 40

 Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation
A very common thermal energy generation process involves the
conversion from electrical to thermal energy in a current carrying medium
(resistance heating). The rate at which energy is generated by passing a
current through a medium of electrical resistance R e is:

Q = I2 R

If this power generation occurs uniformly throughout the medium of

volume V , the volumetric generation rate (W/m 3 ) is:

qg

Boundary conditions most commonly encountered in practice are the specified

temperature, specified heat flux, convection, and radiation boundary conditions.

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 41

 Conduction with q g in a Plane Wall

Consider a plane wall, in which there is uniform energy generation per unit volume (qg is constant) and
the surfaces are maintained at Tw 1 and Tw 2 . The appropriate form of the heat equation:

after 1st and second integration :

Case (i) : Both surfaces have the same temperature:

With applying B.C. we get :

Substituting in the above equation: :

To get location of max temperature:

42

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction

 Conduction with q˙g in a Plane Wall

The maximum temperature is given by: :

Heat transfer takes place from both surfaces :

When both surfaces are considered :

Case (ii) Both surfaces of the wall have different surfaces

The B.C are

Applying B.C to equation

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 43

 Conduction with q˙g in a Plane Wall

We get:

Inserting C1 and C2 in the equation we get:

Temperature distribution can be arranged in dimensionless form as given below:

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 44

 Conduction with q˙g in a Plane Wall

The temperature distribution equation will become:

In order to get location of max temperature:

The maximum temperature occurs at :

The max temperature is given by: Practice the derivation

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 45

 Conduction with q˙g in a Plane Wall
Graph show variation of dimensionless temperature
With location for different values of Z factor:
• As the value of Z increases the slope of the curve changes
• When Z=0 , the temperature distribution is linear.
• When the value of Z is negative, qg represents absorption
of heat within the body.

Case (iii) current carrying electrical conductor:

• When electric current pass through the conductor, there is heat generation and given by:

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 46

 Conduction with q˙g in a Plane Wall
1: The rate of heat generation in a slab of thickness 160 mm (k= 180 w/m) is 1.2 x 10 6
w/m3. if the temperature of each surface of solid is 120 determine (i) The temperature at
the mid and quarter planes: (ii) The heat flow rate and temperature gradients at the mid
and quarter planes.
(141.33 , 136 ; 96000 w/m2, 48000 w/m2;-533 /m, 266.67 /m)
2: The temperature on the two surfaces of a 25 mm thick steel plate ( k = 48 w/m) having a
volumetric heat generation of 30 x 106 w/m3 , are 180 , and 120 . Neglecting the end
effects determine the following:(i)The temperature distribution across the plate. (ii) The
value and maximum temperature and (iii) The flow of heat from each surface of the plate.
3: A plane wall 90 mm thick (k= 0.18 w/m) is insulated on one side is exposed to
environment at 80 , The rate of heat transfer coefficient between the wall and the
environment is 520 w/m2 , determine the maximum temperature to which the wall will be
subjected.

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 47

 Extended Surface/Fin
• The heat that is conducted through a body must frequently be
removed (or delivered) by some convection process. For example,
the heat lost by conduction through a furnace wall must be
dissipated to the surroundings through convection.
• In heat-exchanger applications a finned-tube arrangement might be
used to remove heat from a hot liquid.
• The heat transfer from the liquid to the finned tube is by convection.
The heat is conducted through the material and finally dissipated to
the surroundings by convection.
• Obviously, an analysis of combined conduction-convection systems
is very important from a practical standpoint.
• Fin is a device which is used to enhance the convection heat transfer
rate by extending the surface area through which heat transferring.
• The idea is to be extend projections over the area of exposure to
increase the total surface area of exposure.
 Fins

• The most frequent application is one in which an extended surface is used specifically to
enhance the heat transfer rate between a solid and an adjoining fluid- called as fin
• Consider a plane wall:

qconv = hA(T s − T ∞ )
 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

• For fixed T s , two ways to enhance the rate of heat transfer:

• Increase the fluid velocity: involves cost of blower or pump power T ∞ could be
reduced: impractical
• Limitations: increasing the velocity of the fluid increases h to the max. possible
value is either insufficient to obtain the desired heat transfer rate or the associated
costs are prohibitively high.
• How about increasing surface area for convection.
• providing fins that extend from the wall into the surrounding fluid.

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 50

 Fin Material
• k of the fin material has a strong effect on the temperature distribution along the fin and
therefore influences the degree to which the heat transfer rate is enhanced.
• Ideally, the fin material should have a large k to minimize temperature variations from
its base to its tip.
• In the limit of infinite thermal conductivity, the entire fin would be at the temperature of
the base surface, thereby providing the maximum possible heat transfer enhancement.

Application of Fins
• The arrangement for cooling engine heads on motorcycles and lawn-mowers
• For cooling electric power transformers
• The tubes with attached fins used to promote heat exchange between air and the working fluid of an air
conditioner

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 51 / 537

 Fin Configurations

For an extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction
of heat transfer in the solid.

General Conduction Analysis

• To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin, we must first obtain the temperature
distribution along the fin.

52 / 537
 Assumptions
• 1-D heat transfer (longitudinal x direction). In practice the fin is thin and the
temperature changes in the longitudinal direction are much larger than those in the
transverse direction.
• Steady state
• k is constant
• No heat generation
• Negligible radiation from the surface
• The rate at which the energy is convected to the fluid from any point on the fin surface
must be balanced by the rate at which the energy reaches that point due to conduction in
the transverse (y, z) direction.
• h is uniform over the surface.

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 53

 Fins
• Simple math
Fins
 Derivation for fin

For uniform cross section fin as shown in fig

qcon= hpdx(T-T) Where P=perimeter

(T - T)

(T - T)

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 56

 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

If excess temperature;

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 57

Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

A. Infinitely long fin( very long fin)

B. Adiabatic end or end insulated
C. Entire heat loss by convection at the tip
D. Prescribed temperature at the tip

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 58

Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

A. For infinite fin as L, TT ,

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 59

 Case A: Infinite fin (very long fin)

At x=0 , T= Tb, θ= θb;

θb = C 1 e m ( 0 ) + C 2 e − m ( 0 ) ; θb = C 1 + C 2 .

A S L → ∞, T= T , θ=T T = 0 and e − m → 0

0= C 1 e m ( ) + C 2 e − m ( ) ; C 1 = 0 & C 2 = θb

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 60

 Case B: Adiabatic Condition at the Fin Tip

At x=0 , T= Tb, θ= Tb = θb;

θb= C 1 e m ( 0 ) + C 2 e − m ( 0 ) ; θb= C 1 + C 2 .

At x = L , T- = C 1 e m x + C 2 e − m x ;
mC 1 e m x mC 2 e − m x
At x=L, = m C 1 e m L mC 2 e − m L
A f t e r s o l v i n g f o r C 1 a n d C 2 we get

Assignment 1
Show

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 61

Case B: Adiabatic Condition at the Fin Tip

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 62

 Case C: convection heat loss ( h) from the Fin Tip
At x=0 , T= Tb, θ= Tb = θb;
θb= C 1 e m ( 0 ) + C 2 e − m ( 0 ) ; θb= C 1 + C 2 .
At x=L: q c o n d = q c o n v ; =

At x= L; = ;
Also at x= L ; = m C 1 e m L mC 2 e − m L = ;
At x= L ; θ = C 1 e m L + C 2 e − m L ; Also at x= L ; = C 1 e m L C 2 e − m L =

• After soling for c1 and c2 and substituting in the equation we get:

Assignment 2
Show

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 63

 Case C: convection heat loss ( h) from the Fin Tip

 The formula for BC of adiabatic and convection are same except the length in the formula
64 /
537

Heat and Mass Transfer

Case C: convection heat loss ( h) from the Fin Tip
Case C: convection heat loss ( h) from the Fin Tip
Case D: Specified Temperature at fin tips

67 /
537

Heat and Mass Transfer

 Problems on fins
1
 Problems on fins
2

Convective heat loss at the Fin Tip

3

Adiabatic Condition at the Fin Tip

 Fin Efficiency

No fin: qconv = hA b (T b − T ∞ )

• The temperature of the fin will be Tb at the fin base and gradually decrease towards
the fin tip.
• Convection from the fin surface causes the temperature at any cross-section to drop
some what from the midsection toward the outer surfaces.
Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 72
 Fin Efficiency
• However, the cross-sectional area of the fins is usually very small, and thus the temperature
at any cross-section can be considered to be uniform.
• Also, the fin tip can be assumed for convenience and simplicity to be convective heat loss
by using the corrected length for the fin instead of the actual length.
• In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance or infinite k, the temperature of fin will be
uniform at the value of Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximum in this case
(k → ∞):

q f in,max
= h A f in (T b − T ∞ )
• In reality, however, the temperature of the fin will drop along the fin and thus the heat
transfer from the fin will be less because of the decreasing [T (x) − T ∞ ] toward the fin tip.

• To account for the effect of this decrease in temperature on heat transfer, we define fin
efficiency as:

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 73

 Fin Efficiency

Replace the length with actual length

74 / 537
 Fin Efficiency: Proper Length of a Fin
• An important consideration in the design of finned surface is the selection of the
proper fin length, L.
• Normally the longer the fin, the larger the heat transfer and thus the higher the
rate of heat transfer from the fin.
• But also the larger the fin, the bigger the mass, the higher the price, and the
larger the fluid friction.
• Therefore, increasing the length of the fin beyond a certain value cannot be
justified unless the added benefits outweigh the added cost.
• Also, η f i n decreases with increasing fin length because of the decrease in fin
temperature with length.
• Fin lengths that cause the fin efficiency to drop below 60% usually cannot be
justified economically and should be avoided.
• η of most fins used in practice is > 90%.
• For most fins of constant thickness encountered in practice, the fin thickness t is too
small relative to the fin length L, and thus the fin tip area is negligible.

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 76

 Fin Effectiveness
• The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of enhancement of heat transfer relative
to without fin case.
where A b is the fin cross-sectional
area at the base.

Fin Effectiveness: Physical Significance

• ε f i n = 1 indicates that the addition of fins to the
surface does not affect heat transfer at all. That is, heat
conducted to the fin through the base area A b is equal to
the heat transferred from the same area A b to the
surrounding medium.
• ε f i n < 1 indicates that the fin actually acts as
insulation, slowing down the heat transfer from the
surface. This situation can occur when fins made of
low k are used.
• ε f i n > 1 indicates that the fins are enhancing heat
transfer from the surface. However, the use of fins
cannot be justified unless ε f i n is sufficiently larger than
1 (≥ 2). Finned surfaces are designed 77 on the basis of
maximizing effectiveness of a specified cost or
minimizing cost for a desired effectiveness.
Efficiency and Effectiveness

η f i n and ε f i n are related to performance of the fin, but they are

different quantities.

=⇒ η f i n A f in
ε f in = Ab

Therefore, η f in can be determined easily when ε f in is known, or

vice versa.

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 78

Problems on fin efficiency and effectiveness

Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 79

 Transient State Heat Transfer
Un Steady State Heat Transfer

• One dimensional conduction

• Transient condition (Unsteady state)

 Temperature as a function of time and position

• Analysis
 Lumped Systems
 Local temperature analysis

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 82

 One dimensional transient heat conduction
• I-D Transient heat conduction equation is given by

• Where Thermal diffusivity

• For Lumped analysis: T(t)

 1 initial condition by analytical method

• T(x,t),
2 Boundary Condition and 1 Initial Condition
• Analytical method using Method of Separation of Variables
• By Charts and Graphs
Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 83
 Lumped System Analysis
• In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump”
whose interior temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a
heat transfer process.
• The temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only,
T(t). Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this idealization is known as lumped
system analysis, which provides great simplification in certain classes of heat
transfer problems without much sacrifice from accuracy.

• System which has less

internal resistance
compared with external
resistance is called
Lumped System or lumped
Heat Capacity System.
 Validity of Lumped Analysis
• Assumed cases where temperature gradient within the solid is small
• Occurs if the thermal resistance within the solid is very small compared to the
external thermal resistance
• Solids with very high thermal diffusivity
• Applicable if Biot Number is less than 0.1
 Lumped System of Analysis

• is a positive quantity whose dimension is (time)-1. The

reciprocal of b has time unit (usually s), and is called the
time constant.
• A product of the resistance to convection heat transfer
and lumped thermal capacitance.
 Heat transferred
• The rate of convection between the body and the
environment at that instant of time t is given by

• The total amount of heat transfer between the body and

the surrounding medium between the time t=0 to t=t is
given by

• The maximum heat transferred between the body and the

surrounding medium is given by
Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 87
 Criteria for Lumped System Analysis
• The first step in establishing a criterion for the applicability of the lumped system
analysis is to define a characteristic length as

• Biot number Bi as

• When a solid body is being heated by the hotter fluid surrounding it (such as a potato being
baked in an oven), heat is first convected to the body and subsequently conducted within
the body. The Biot number is the ratio of the internal resistance of a body to heat
conduction to its external resistance to heat convection. Therefore, a small Biot number
represents small resistance to heat conduction, and thus small temperature gradients
within the body.
• It is generally accepted that lumped system analysis is applicable if
 Find Biot number
• It is generally accepted
that lumped system
analysis is applicable if

Derive the following equation:

• Fourier Number (Fo)(dimensionless “time”)

 Problems
1. The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a thermocouple whose junction can be
approximated as a 1-mm-diameter sphere, as shown in Fig.2. The properties of the junction are k =
35 W/m · °C, ρ = 8500 kg/m3, and Cp = 320 J/kg · °C, and the convection heat transfer coefficient
between the junction and the gas is h = 210 W/m2 · °C. Determine how long it will take for the
thermocouple to read 99 percent of the initial temperature difference.

SOLUTION The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a thermocouple.

The time it takes to register 99 percent of the initial T is to be determined.

Biot number (Bi) we can apply

 Problems
• A person is found dead at 5 PM in a room whose temperature is 20°C. The temperature of
the body is measured to be 25°C when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
to be h = 8 W/m2 · °C. Modeling the body as a 30-cm-diameter, 1.70-m-long cylinder,
estimate the time of death of that person.
SOLUTION A body is found while still warm. The time of death is to be estimated.

• Assumptions 1 The body can be modeled as a 30-cm-diameter, 1.70-m-long cylinder. 2 The thermal
properties of the body and the heat transfer coefficient are constant. 3 The radiation effects are
negligible. 4 The person was healthy(!) when he or she died with a body temperature of 37°C.

• Properties The average human body is 72 percent water by mass, and thus we can assume the body to
have the properties of water at the average temperature of (37 + 25)/2 = 31°C; k = 0.617 W/m · °C, ρ=
996 kg/m3, and Cp = 4178 J/kg · °C

Lumped system analysis not

applicable. But we can still
use it to get rough estimate
 Local Temperature Analysis
• Consider a plane wall of thickness 2L, a long cylinder of radius ro, and a sphere of radius ro
initially at a uniform temperature Ti, as shown in Fig. At time t = 0, each geometry is placed in a
large medium that is at a constant temperature T∞ and kept in that medium for t > 0. Heat
transfer takes place between these bodies and their environments by convection with a uniform
and constant heat transfer coefficient h. Note that all three cases possess geometric and
thermal symmetry: the plane wall is symmetric about its center plane (x=0), the cylinder is
symmetric about its centerline (r=0), and the sphere is symmetric about its center point (r= 0).
We neglect radiation heat transfer between these bodies and their surrounding surface, or
incorporate the radiation effect into the convection heat transfer coefficient h.

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins

 Local temperature analysis
• When the wall is first exposed to the surrounding medium at T∞ << Ti at t= 0, the entire wall is
at its initial temperature Ti. But the wall temperature at and near the surfaces starts to drop as
a result of heat transfer from the wall to the surrounding medium.
• This creates a temperature gradient in the wall and initiates heat conduction from the inner
parts of the wall toward its outer surfaces.
• Note that the temperature at the center of the wall remains at Ti until t = t2, and that the
temperature profile within the wall remains symmetric at all times about the center plane. The
temperature profile gets flatter and flatter as time passes as a result of heat transfer, and
eventually becomes uniform at T =T∞. That is, the wall reaches thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings.
• At that point, the heat transfer stops since there is no longer a temperature difference. Similar
discussions can be given for the long cylinder or sphere.
• The formulation of the problems for the determination of the one-dimensional transient
temperature distribution T(x, t) in a wall results in a partial differential equation, which can
be solved using advanced mathematical techniques. The solution, however, normally
involves infinite series, which are inconvenient and time-consuming to evaluate.

• Therefore, there is clear motivation to present the solution in tabular or graphical form.
However, the solution involves the parameters x, L, t, k, α, h, Ti, and T∞, which are too many
to make any graphical presentation of the results practical.

• In order to reduce the number of parameters, we non-dimensionalize the problem by

defining the following dimensionless quantities:
 Sample
Sample Heisler
Heisler charts
charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 98

 Sample Heisler charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 99

 Sample Heisler charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 100 /

537
 Sample Heisler charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 101

 Sample Heisler charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 102 /

537
 Sample Heisler charts

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 103

 Problems
1. An ordinary egg can be approximated as a 5-cm-diameter sphere. The egg is initially at a uniform
temperature of 5°C and is dropped into boiling water at 95°C. Taking the convection heat transfer coefficient
to be h =1200 W/m2 ·°C, determine how long it will take for the center of the egg to reach 70°C.
Solution An egg is cooked in boiling water. The cooking time of the egg is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The egg is spherical in shape with a radius of r0=2.5 cm. 2 Heat conduction in the egg is one-
dimensional because of thermal symmetry about the midpoint. 3 The thermal properties of the egg and
the heat transfer coefficient are constant. 4 The Fourier number is τ>0.2 so that the one-term approximate
solutions are applicable.
Properties The water content of eggs is about 74 percent, and thus the thermal conductivity and diffusivity
of eggs can be approximated by those of water at the average temperature of (5+70)/2 =37.5°C; k= 0.627
W/m ·°C and α= k/Cp 0.151 *10-6 m2/s
The temperature within the egg varies with radial distance as well as time, and the
temperature at a specified location at a given time can be determined from the Heisler
charts or the one-term solutions. Here we will use the latter to demonstrate their use.

1
Error less than 2%

Therefore, it will take about 15 min for the center of the egg to be heated from5°C to 70°C.
 Problems
2. In a production facility, large brass plates of 4 cm thickness that are initially at a uniform temperature of
20°C are heated by passing them through an oven that is maintained at 500°C. The plates remain in the
oven for a period of 7 min. Taking the combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient to be
h=120 W/m2·°C, determine the surface temperature of the plates when they come out of the oven.
SOLUTION Large brass plates are heated in an oven. The surface temperature of the plates leaving the
oven is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Heat conduction in the plate is one-dimensional since the plate is large relative to its
thickness and there is thermal symmetry about the center plane. 2 The thermal properties of the plate and
the heat transfer coefficient are constant. 3 The Fourier number is τ>0.2 so that the one-term approximate
solutions are applicable.
Properties The properties of brass at room temperature are k =110 W/m ·°C,ρ= 8530 kg/m3, Cp= 380 J/kg ·
°C, and α=33.9 *106 m-2/s.
The temperature at a specified location at a given time can be determined from the Heisler charts or one-
term solutions. Here we will use the charts to demonstrate their use.

We notice that the Biot number in this case is Bi=1/45.8 =0.022, which is much less than 0.1. Therefore, we
expect the lumped system analysis to be applicable. This is also evident from (T-T∞)/(To-T ∞)=0.99, which
indicates that the temperatures at the center and the surface of the plate relative to the surrounding
temperature are within 1 percent of each other.
 Problems
3. A long 20-cm-diameter cylindrical shaft made of stainless steel 304 comes out of an oven at a uniform
temperature of 600°C . The shaft is then allowed to cool slowly in an environment chamber at 200°C with
an average heat transfer coefficient of h=80 W/m2·°C. Determine the temperature at the center of the
shaft 45 min after the start of the cooling process. Also, determine the heat transfer per unit length of the
shaft during this time period.
Solution A long cylindrical shaft at 600°C is allowed to cool slowly. The center temperature and the heat transfer per
unit length are to be determined.
Assumptions . 1 Heat conduction in the shaft is one-dimensional since it is long and it has thermal symmetry about
the centerline. 2 The thermal properties of the shaft and the heat transfer coefficient are constant. 3 The Fourier
number is τ> 0.2 so that the one-term approximate solutions are applicable.
Properties The properties of stainless steel 304 at room temperature are k =14.9 W/m ·°C, ρ=7900 kg/m3, Cp= 477
J/kg ·°C, and α=3.95*10-6 m2/s.
Thank you