Z O O L O G Y:
A N E VO L U T I O N A RY
AND ECOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Grade 9 Advance Subject: Zoology
I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Z O O L O G Y
ZOOLOGY
from the Greek words “zoon” meaning animal and
“logos”, to study.
The study of animals.
It is one of the broadest fields in all of science because of
the immense variety of animals and the complexity of the
processes occurring within animals.
I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Z O O L O G Y
Understanding the biology of a single species is a
daunting task, yet a task that can be critical to the species’
survival.
S O M E S P E C I A L I Z AT I O N S I N Z O O L O G Y
Subdiscipline Description
Anatomy Study of the structure of entire organisms and their parts.
Cytology Study of the structure and function of cells.
Comparative Genomics Study of the structure, function, and evolution of the genetic composition of
and Bioinformatics groups of animals using computer-based computational methods Ecology.
Ecology Study of the interaction of organisms with their environment.
Study of the development of an animal from the fertilized egg to birth or
Embryology hatching.
Genetics Study of the mechanisms of transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
Histology Study of tissues
Molecular biology Study of subcellular details of structure and function.
Parasitology Study of animals that live in or on other organisms at the expense of the host.
Physiology Study of the function of organisms and their parts.
Study of the classification of, and the evolutionary interrelationships among,
Systematics animal Groups
S O M E S P E C I A L I Z AT I O N S I N Z O O L O G Y B Y TA X O N O M I C
C AT E G O R I E S
Subdiscipline Description
Entomology Study of insects.
Herpetology Study of amphibians and reptiles.
Ichthyology Study of fishes.
Mammalogy Study of mammals.
Ornithology Study of birds.
Protozoology Study of protozoa.
E V O L U T I O N A RY A N D E C O L O G I C A L
CONTEXTS
All the shared characteristics of organisms are the result
of their common ancestry and the evolutionary forces that
influenced their history.
Shared characteristics are studied by zoologists in
documenting the evolutionary history of any group of
animals.
EVOLUTIONARY AND ECOLOGICAL
CONTEXTS
ORGANIC EVOLUTION is change in the genetic makeup of
populations of organisms over time.
CHARLES DARWIN published convincing evidence of
evolution in 1859 and proposed a mechanism that could explain
evolutionary change.
EVOLUTIONARY AND ECOLOGICAL
CONTEXTS
The mechanism proposed by Darwin has been confirmed
and now serves as the nucleus of our understanding of
why animals look and behave as they do.
Evolutionary principles also explain the origin of life’s
diversity and the family relationships among groups of
animals.
ANI MAL CLASSI FI CATION AND
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
Evolutionary principles help us to understand animal
relationships.
We know that terns, plovers, gulls, and auks are closely related
because of genetically based physical characteristics they share
and because of molecular studies, which demonstrate that they
share more of their genetic material (DNA) with each other than
with individuals in other groups.
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
You are more closely related to your brother or sister than to
your cousin for the same reason.
Similar genetic studies help zoologists reevaluate hypotheses
regarding relationships between broader animal groups.
Generations of zoologists have considered birds as being
united in a major taxonomic class of animals named “Aves.”
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
The group “Aves” was considered at the same relationship level
as that occupied by bony fishes (Actinopterygii), amphibians
(Amphibia), reptiles (Reptilia), and mammals (Mammalia).
The “Aves” designation seemed justified by the remarkable flight
adaptations present in birds. In recent decades, it has become
increasingly apparent that anatomical, physiological, and
behavioral characteristics shared by birds and reptiles indicate
close evolutionary ties between the two groups.
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
In addition, hundreds of studies of DNA structure have confirmed
that birds are reptiles that have become adapted for flight.
Birds are the only dinosaurs to survive a mass extinction event
that occurred approximately 66 million years ago.
The formal class designation, Aves, may be dropped in the future,
and birds would then be included within Reptilia.
Birds are considered reptiles and designated by either of their
informal names, birds or avian reptiles.
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
Like all organisms, animals are named and classified into a
hierarchy of relatedness. Although Carl von Linne (1707–1778) is
primarily remembered for collecting and classifying plants, his
system of naming—binomial nomenclature—has also been
adopted for animals.
A two-part name describes each kind of organism.
The first part is the genus name, and the second part is the species
epithet.
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
Each kind of organism (a species) is recognized throughout the
world by its two-part species name.
Verbal or written reference to a species refers to an organism
identified by this two-part name.
The species epithet is generally not used without the
accompanying genus name or its abbreviation.
Sample: Sternula antillarum
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
Above the genus level, organisms are grouped into families, orders,
classes, phyla, kingdoms, and domains, based on a hierarchy of
relatedness.
It is not uncommon for levels of taxonomy between these groups to
be designated to reflect more precise details of relationships (e.g.,
subclass or superorder).
Species may also be divided into two or more subspecies when
genetic characteristics of two or more groups within a species
(populations) are sufficiently distinct.
A N I M A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
R E L AT I O N S H I P S
Organisms in the same species are more closely related than
organisms in the same genus, and organisms in the same genus are
more closely related than organisms in the same family, and so on.
When zoologists classify animals into taxonomic groupings, they
are making hypotheses about the extent to which groups of animals
share DNA, even when they study variations in traits like jaw
structure, color patterns, and behavior, because these kinds of traits
ultimately are based on the genes that they share.
H I E R A R C H Y O F R E L AT E D N E S S . T h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a
h o u s e f l y, h o r s e f l y, l e a s t t e r n , a n d h u m a n i l l u s t r a t e s h o w t h e
classification system depicts degrees of relatedness.
Z O O L O G Y: A N E C O L O G I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E
Modern zoology requires an ecological perspective.
It is a second major unifying theme in zoology. An ecological
perspective recognizes that animals can never be understood apart
from other organisms and the nonliving components of their
environment.
Ecology (from the Greek words “oikos”, house + “logos”, to
study) is the study of the relationships between organisms and
their environment.
Z O O L O G Y: A N E C O L O G I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E
All animal species live within delicate ecological constraints.
When the ecological characteristics of a species’ habitat remain,
or become, favorable the species is likely to survive.
Most environmental changes, whether natural or anthropogenic
(human-made) in nature, can threaten species survival.
A threatened species may (rarely) adapt over many thousands to
millions of years or (more commonly) face extinction.
ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND WORLD RESOURCES
Extinction has been the fate of most plant and animal species.
It is a natural process that will continue.
In recent years, however, the threat to the welfare of wild plants
and animals has increased dramatically—
mostly because of habitat destruction.
Tropical rain forests are one of the most threatened areas on the
earth.
ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND WORLD RESOURCES
Decrease in habitat has resulted in tens of thousands of extinctions.
Accurately estimating the number of extinctions is impossible in areas like
rain forests, where taxonomists have not even described most species.
We are losing species that we do not know exist, and we are losing resources
that could lead to new medicines, foods, and textiles.
Other causes of extinction include climate change, pollution, and invasions
from foreign species. Habitats other than rain forests—grasslands, marshes,
deserts, and coral reefs—are also being seriously threatened.
ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND WORLD RESOURCES
No one knows how many species living today are close to
extinction.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has
assessed over 116,000 species worldwide and of these more than
31,000 species are listed as endangered or threatened.
An endangered species is in imminent danger of extinction
throughout its range (where it lives).
A threatened species is likely to become endangered soon.
ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND WORLD RESOURCES
Saving species requires more than preserving a few remnant
individuals.
It requires a large diversity of genes within species groups to
promote species survival in changing environments.
This genetic diversity requires large populations of plants and
animals, living in non-fragmented habitats, which permit gene
exchange throughout a population.
ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND WORLD RESOURCES
Preservation of endangered species depends on a multifaceted conservation
plan that includes the following components:
1. A global system of reserves to protect large tracts of land and wildlife
corridors that allow movement between natural areas.
2. Protected landscapes and multiple-use areas that allow controlled
private activity and also retain value as a wildlife habitat.
3. Zoos and botanical gardens to save species whose extinction is
imminent
P O P U L AT I O N S
Global overpopulation and overconsumption by developed
countries are at the root of virtually all other environmental
problems.
The global human population is currently 7.8 billion.
Population growth between 2020 and 2050 is expected to be
greatest in lower and middle-income countries where growth rates
are expected to increase by 220% and 23%, respectively.
P O P U L AT I O N S
This rate of increase is much higher than the projected 3% rate of increase in
wealthier countries.
By the year 2050, the total population of India (1.64 billion) is expected to
surpass that of China (1.41 billion) and the total world population will reach
9.7 billion.
The 2020 U.S. population was 331 million. In 2050, it is projected to increase
to 379 million.
As the human population grows, the disparity between the wealthiest and
poorest nations is likely to increase.
WORLD RESOURCES
Human overpopulation is stressing world resources. Although new technologies
continue to increase food production, most food is produced in industrialized
countries that already have a high per-capita food consumption.
Maximum oil production is continuing in this millennium.
Deforestation of large areas of the world results from continued demand for
forest products, fuel, and agricultural land.
This trend contributes to climate change by increasing atmospheric carbon
dioxide from burning forests and impairing the ability of the earth to return
carbon to organic matter through photosynthesis.
WORLD RESOURCES
Deforestation also causes severe regional water shortages and results in the
extinction of many plant and animal species, especially in tropical forests.
Forest preservation would result in the identification of new species of
plants and animals that could be important human resources: new foods,
drugs, building materials, and predators of pests.
Nature also has intrinsic value that is just as important as its provision of
resources for humans.
Recognition of this intrinsic worth provides important aesthetic and moral
impetus for preservation.
WORLD RESOURCES
The stress being placed on world resources is a worldwide
problem—not just one caused by, or occurring in, less developed
countries.
Major causes of resource problems are directly associated with
activities in, and demands created by, industrialized nations. This
fact is illustrated by looking at the anthropogenic contribution of
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.
WORLD RESOURCES
The major sources of greenhouse gases are tied to the overuse of fossil fuels,
and the greatest contributors to anthropogenic greenhouse gas are China and
the United States.
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in lower- and middle-income countries
are much lower than in higher-income countries like Canada and the United
States.
As highly populated lower- and middle-income regions strive to achieve the
living standards of wealthier countries, worldwide greenhouse gas emissions
could dramatically increase.
SOLUTIONS
An understanding of basic ecological principles can help prevent looming ecological
disasters:
1. how matter is cycled and recycled in nature,
2. how populations grow, and how organisms in our lakes and forests use energy,
3. there are no easy solutions to our ecological problems.
• The loss of natural habitats, climate change, pollution, exploitation of Earth’s resources,
and the problems associated with invasive species all have ties to over-consumption by
developed countries and expanding human populations.
• We can all individually participate in solving these problems, but it will also require
difficult choices involving global cooperation.
A S S E S S M E N T:
Why is it often necessary for zoologists to
specialize in a subdiscipline within zoology?
A S S E S S M E N T:
Why can zoologists use similarities in DNA,
similarities in morphological characteristics, or
both when investigating taxonomic
(evolutionary) relationships among animals?
A S S E S S M E N T:
Use the taxonomic designations class, order, and
family to explain how the naming system
reflects evolutionary relationships and varying
levels of inclusiveness.
A S S E S S M E N T:
Explain why it was important for zoologists to
reclassify birds from “Aves” into Reptilia. In
other words, why does the name matter—isn’t a
bird by any name still a bird?
A S S E S S M E N T:
The ecological problems facing our world stem
from behaviors of humans from lower-income,
middle-income, and higher-income regions of
the world. What characteristics of human
activity in each of these regions contribute to
environmental degradation?
