DIGESTION ABSORPTION
AND UTILIZATION OF
NUTRIENTS
The gastrointestinal system is the portal
through which nutrients are absorbed into the
body
Food macromolecules are essentially broken
down to absorbable units principally in the
small intestine and products absorbed
across the enterocytes into circulation
Large number of digestive enzymes are
involved
The extensive length of the gut sub serves
at various levels one or more of the
functions defined by digestion or absorption
Beginning in the oral cavity down to the
large bowel
Digestive enzyme and their
substrates
Salivary amylase acts on starch to release
dextrin, maltose and maltriose
Lingual lipase acts on triglycerides to
release fatty acids and diacylglycerides
In the stomach
Pepsin digests proteins and polypeptides to
amino acids
Gastric lipase releases fatty acids and
glycerol from triglycerides
THE EXOCRINE PANCREAS
Trypsin and chymotrypsin brakes down
proteins to polypeptides
Carboxypeptidases releases amino acids
from polypeptides
Elastase cleaves elastin to release amino
acids
Colipase is required by pancreatic lipase
Pancreatic lipase digests triglycerides to
fatty acids and monoglycerides
Bile salt activated lipase releases
cholesterol from their esters
Cholesterol ester hydrolase digests
cholesterol ester to release free cholesterol
Pancreatic amylase acts as salivary amylase
Ribonuclease acts on RNA to release
nucleotides
Deoxyribonucleas acts on DNA to release
nucleotide
Phospholipases cleaves phospholipases to
fatty acids and lysophospholipids
INTESTINAL MUCOSA
Aminopeptidases digests polypeptides to
release amino acids
Carboxypeptidases digests polypeptides to
release amino acids
Dipeptidases digests dipeptides into two
amino acids
Maltase digests maltose, maltotriose and
dextrin into glucose
Lactase digests lactose into galactose and
glucose
Sucrase digests sucrose, maltotriose and
maltose into fructose and glucose
Dextrinase digests dextrins, maltose and
maltotriose into glucose
Trehalase acts on trehalose to release
glucose
CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION
Starts in the mouth with the aid
of salivary amylase ( ph 6.7) and
also pancreatic amylase in the
intestine braking down starch to
varying length of sugars
Including oligosaccharides, maltose,
maltotriose dextrin and even other glucose
polymers
Final digestion of carbohydrates is
accomplished by brush border
oligosaccharidases.
Isomaltase and maltase digests maltose
band maltotriose into two glucose
molecules
Sucrase digests sucrose into glucose and
fructose
Lactase digests lactose into galactose and
glucose
Trehalase digests trehalose to two glucose
molecules
ABSORPTION
Hexoses are mostly absorbed using Na+
linked cotransport
Sodium linked glucose transporter 1 ( SGLT
1) transports glucose from the intestinal
lumen into the enterocytes and from the
enterocytes into the blood stream by GLUT
2
Fructose absorption from the lumen into the
intestinal cells is by GLUT 5 and from
intestinal cells to the stream by GLUT 2
Some fructose are converted to glucose
inside the enterocytes
UTILIZATION OF GLUCOSE
The following processes are involved
Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Glycolysis
Glycogenolysis
Following absorption, glucose may be
delivered to muscle, liver the brain or red
blood cells for utilization
Glycolysis , ( inside the cytoplasm) in which
the six carbon molecule is converted to two
molecules of pyruvate each consisting of
three carbon atoms
In aerobic metabolism , pyruvate diffuses
into mitochondria where it enters the citric
acid cycle to generate two reducing
equivalents NADH and FADH2
These reducing equivalents enters the
electron transport chain producing much as
32 ATP molecules
ATP is the energy currency in cell
In oxygen deficient states, pyruvate is
converted to lactate
Lactate is transported to the liver through
the enterohepatic circulation, and is burnt
in cells mitochondria producing 2
molecules of ATP
Red cells converts glucose to lactase
Brain cells uses glucose and ketone bodies
for energy
Liver primarily uses fatty acids
Adipose tissues uses fatty acids and glucose
PROTEIN METABOLISM
Digestion starts in the stomach by pepsin,
braking down proteins to varying degrees
of polypeptides
In the intestine, pancreatic trypsin and
chymotrypsin also digests proteins into
polypeptides
Carboxypeptidases and other proteolytic
species in the succus entericus ( small
intestine) finally releases amino acids from
peptides.
Protein absorption and
utilization
Most amino acids are
absorbed in the jejunum via
Na+ co transport
Though some derivatives by
facilitated diffusion.
Amino acids absorbed can be
conveyed in systemic circulation
to various tissues including
muscles kidneys and the liver
In tissues amino acids can be
used for growth and repair,
synthesis of enzymes and
hormones
Can be used in the liver for the
synthesis of glucose
( gluconeogenesis)
Synthesis of plasma proteins
Converts ammonia generated in
tissues to urea
Ammonia generated as toxic by product of
amino acids utilization is transferred to
liver
Urea produced in the liver is conveyed to
kidney for final excretion
Kidney utilizes amino acids to produce
glutamate used in buffer function
In the Tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA) , the
acetate generated from carbohydrates
proteins and fats are utilized to produce ATP
LIPID METABOLISM
Activity of lingual and gastric lipase
insignificant
Essentially happening in the duodenum
with aid of bile salt
Lipolytic spp ( pancreatic and in succus
entericus
Succus entericus
An alkaline secretion produced by the
glands in especially the duodenum
Contains enzymes such as disaccharidases ,
dipeptidases, lipases and nucleosidases
High bicarbonate content protects the lower
bowel from acidic insult
Pancreatic lipase requires a co enzyme
collipase
Bile salt activated lipase also a pancreatic
secretion that digests cholesterol esters into
free cholesterol and fatty acids
Dietary fats are essentially in the form of
triglycerides
They are acted upon by lipases to release
free fatty acids and monoglycerides
Fats are poorly soluble substances and
therefore of high surface tension
Activity of lipases eased by bile salt
emulsification
Final products in the digestion of lipids
include cholesterol, fatty acids and
monoglycerides
ABSORPTION
These digestible products diffuses into the
enterocytes
There is conversion of monoglycerides to
triglycerides in the mucosal cells
Re-esterification of fatty acids with more
than 10-12 carbon atoms
Triglycerides cholesterol esters and
phospholipids forms particles called
chylomicrons
These are the transport vehicle of dietary
lipids
Can not cross the capillaries into the blood
due to their sizes
Chylomicrons are eventually absorbed into
the lymph and then eventually into the
blood depending on density and speed of
the absorbable component
Fate of absorbed lipids
Transported in the system either by entero
hepatic circulation to the liver or by
systemic circulation to various tissues
Triglycerides are stored in fatty tissues
Can also be broken down for synthesis of
ketone bodies
Acetyl CoA can enter the citric acid cycle for
the synthesis of ATP
Ketone bodies delivered to kidneys are
excreted
STORAGE
Triglycerides are the primary storage form
of long-chain fatty acids, which are broken
down for energy and used in structural
fomation of cells
Stored in adipose tissues and in the liver as
neutral fats
When chylomicrons are travelling in
capillaries of adipocytes lipoprotein lipase
present in capillary endothelium hydrolyzes
triglycerides of chylomicrons into free fatty
acids and glycerols
Free fatty acids and glycerol enters fat cells
of adipocytes or liver and still be converted
to triglycerides and stored
Other components of chylomicrons
( phospholipids and cholesterol )
combines with proteins to form lipoproteins
