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Research Methods with Applied Statistics

MAG REVIEW
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CRIMINOLOGIC
AL RESEARCH
1
Research Methods with Applied Statistics

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10
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
Chapter 2

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RRL / RRS
The word related means the legal bases,
literature, and studies that have a direct
bearing or relation to the present study. It
has three parts: related legal bases,
related literature, and related studies.

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RELATED LEGAL BASES

Related to government thrusts, and related laws, policies, and

politics
RELATED LITERATURE

Theoretical articles (theories), protocol papers, news, laws,

policy
statements, and books
RELATED STUDIES
Research, thesis, and dissertations

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THE CORRELATION BETWEEN PARENTAL

INVOLVEMENT AND THE FREQUENCY OF BULLYING
RRL (local): School Bullying Sanctions Philippines
(Respicio & Co.) (October 2023)

RRS (local): The Philippine Secondary School Experience of

Bullying through the Lens of Bronfenbrenner’s Socioecological
Theory
(Philippine Education Research Journal) (December 2020)

RRL (foreign): Dominance Theory of Bullying

(International Journal of Health Sciences and Research)
(August 2020)

RRS (foreign): Understanding Responses to Bullying from the

Parent Perspective
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(Original Research Article, Ed Psychology) (May 2021) 24
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11
RESEARCH DESIGN
Chapter 3

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CTTO
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RESEARCH DESIGN
• A strategy or a plan for a study that
specifies the methods and procedures for
data collection, measurement, and
analysis
• A plan for selecting sources of information,
a framework for specifying relationships
among variables, and a blueprint that
outlines the procedures from hypothesis to
analysis
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(4) KINDS OF
RESEARCH DESIGN

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1. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• History - “search for knowledge and the truth”
• Historical research is a scientific critical inquiry of
the whole truth of past events using vital methods
to understand and interpret facts applicable to
current issues. Both science and art

Purpose:
• Learn from past failures/success
• Apply them to the current/present problems
• Make predictions
• Test hypothesis concerning relationships or trends
• Understand present educational practices and
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2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• The study focuses on the present condition

Purpose:
• To find new truth
• Provides facts on which scientific judgments may be based
• Provides essential knowledge about the nature of objects
and persons
• For closer observation of the practices, behavior, methods,
and procedures
• Contributes to the development of instruments for the
measurement of many things
• Formulation of policies at the local, national, or
international level
• The data-gathering instruments: are questionnaires, tests,
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interviews, checklists, scorecards, rating scales, and 24
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KINDS OF
DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN

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DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY
• To determine the extent of different conditions, the
use of a survey as a data-gathering method

Example:
• The use of a 5-point Likert Scale to express the
level of their agreement

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24 DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE
SURVEY
• A variation of a descriptive survey, results will be
compared to the established norms/standards

Example:
• A survey assessing the nutritional habits of
students
• Norm/Standard: National dietary guidelines for
students

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DESCRIPTIVE STATUS
• Examines the current state or status of a particular
phenomenon or situation in a group
• Cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships or
changes over time

Example:
• Current state of mental health services
• Helps understand the current status and serves as a
foundation for further research and intervention

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DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
• Combines the elements of descriptive research and
analytical techniques
• Breaks down the factors or the topic into pieces, to
discover the nature of things

Example:
• Remote classes on student productivity
a. different aspects of study and personal life
b. productivity and factors such as study environment
and personal satisfaction
c. experiences

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DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION
• To classify subjects from phylum to species
• Commonly used in natural science, classification of
species

Example:
• Crim: To classify and describe different types
of property crimes

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DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATIVE
• To appraise carefully the importance/worthiness of
the current study

Example:
• Evaluation of the implementation of police
body-worn camera

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DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE
• Considers two variables (not manipulated) and
establishes a formal procedure to compare and
conclude that one is better than the other if
significant differences exist

Example:
• Student academic performance in online vs.
face-to-face classes

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CORRELATIONAL SURVEY
• To determine the relationship between two variables
(X and Y)
• Whether it is:
Perfect 1.0
Very high 0.8-1.0
High 0.6-0.8
Marked 0.4-0.6
Moderate 0.3-0.4
Slight 0.1-0.3
Negligible 0.1

(Intensity or degree of a phenomenon)

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Perfect Positive Correlation with a value of 1.0 – seldom happens

(same with a Perfect Negative Correlation)

• PPC: where two variables are perfectly and positively linearly

related, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable
increases in a perfectly predictable manner
• Mathematical Representation: Y=aX+b
Example:
• Income and taxes: earns 5000, pays tax of 1000. If income doubles
the taxes paid double also

• PNC: correlational coefficient of -1.0, where every increase in one

variable corresponds to a proportional decrease in the other variable
Example:
• The more hours you drive (without stopping), the less distance
remains to reach your destination

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LONGITUDINAL SURVEY
• Requires much time allotted to research

Example:
• Researchers wish to determine the academic
performance of criminology students, from 1st
year to 4th year of college (same group of
respondents)

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3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• A problem-solving approach for the future on what
will be the results when variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated

Example:
• High recidivism rates among first-time
offenders (using randomized-controlled trials)
• 50 participants will undergo a restorative justice
program, and 50 will undergo traditional sentencing

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4. CASE STUDY RESEARCH

• A problem-solving technique wherein the study is
described from the past, present, and future

Example:
• The researcher wants to determine the reading
comprehension of students.
• After data gathering, he analyzed the factors
associated with it.
• Then, he diagnoses the causal factors as a basis for
therapeutic intervention

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12
SAMPLING
Chapter 3

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 SAMPLING
The method of getting a representative portion of a population. The population is
the total number

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
● Saves time, money, and effort ● Sample data involve more care in
because the number of subjects preparing detailed sub-
involved is small classifications due to the small
● It is more effective since every number of subjects
individual in the population without ● If the sampling is not correctly
bias has an equal chance of being designed and followed, the results
selected for the sample may be misleading
● Faster, cheaper, economical due to ● Sampling requires an expert to
the small number of subjects and conduct the study in an area
few copies of questionnaires ● Complicated sampling plans are
● It is more accurate due to the small laborious to prepare
size of data involved in the
collection, analysis, interpretation
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SIZE
• Sampling is advisable if the population is equal to or more
than 10. The use of the total population is advisable if the
population is less than 100 due to categorization. The
following formula is presented to have a scientific
determination of sample size:

PLANNING A SAMPLE SURVEY

• State the objectives of the survey
• Define the population
• Select the sampling individual
• Decide a sampling design that suits the study (scientific or
non-scientific sampling)
• Determine the sample size using this formula:
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FORMULA:

SLOVEN FORMULA:

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2 KINDS OF
SAMPLING DESIGN
SCIENTIFIC & NON-
SCIENTIFIC

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SCIENTIFIC
SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING

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24 RESTRICTED RANDOM
SAMPLING
• Applying certain constraints or restrictions to the
random selection process
• Can use a technique, sort alphabetically, give
numbers, or by draws/raffle
• Everyone has an equal chance of being selected

Example:
• Restrict the sample where the student weekly
allowances fall within a specific range

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SAMPLING
• NO constraints or restrictions in the random
selection process
• Can use a technique, sort alphabetically, give
numbers, or by draws/raffle
• Everyone has an equal chance of being selected

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STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

• Population is divided into distinct subgroups or
"strata" based on specific characteristics

Example:
• Strata: age 20-30, age 30-40, age 40-50
• Select using a randomized technique for each
stratum to make sure that every stratum has a
representation

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SAMPLING
• Selects every nth individual from a list of the
population

Example:
• Lists all 2,000 students and numbers them from 1 to

• The sampling interval 𝑘 is calculated by dividing the

2,000.

total population size by the desired sample size:

•

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SAMPLING
• A complex form of cluster sampling that involves
multiple stages of sampling

Example:
• Stage 1: divides the country into regions
• Stage 2: within each selected region, identify all the
universities
• Stage 3: within identified universities, list all
students and randomly select

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CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

• Population is divided into clusters and then a
random sample of these clusters is selected. All
individuals within the chosen clusters are included in
the final sample

Example:
• Divide into Clusters: Each private university is
treated as a cluster
• Randomly Select Clusters: Randomly select 10
private universities out of 100
• Survey All Voters: All criminology students in the
selected 10 private universities are surveyed
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NON SCIENTIFIC
SAMPLING
NON PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

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PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
• Each sample element is selected, from individuals
who are knowledgeable about the topic

Example:
• First-time entrepreneurs - those who have
started their own business within the last 2 years

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INCIDENTAL SAMPLING
• The most available, take the nearest individuals as
the subject of the study
• AKA Convenience Sampling – easiest to collect

Example:
• Immediate availability, not because it represents
the entire population, to reach the desired size

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QUOTA SAMPLING
• Population to mutually exclusive subgroups, using
judgment to select subjects from the units
• AKA Judgement Sampling – based on judgment

Example:
• Sample of 100 males and 100 females
between ages 20 and 30…

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SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• Additional respondents from the referral of the initial
subject
• Works like chain referral

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13
QUALITIES OF A
GOOD RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
Chapter 3

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NOTE:
• Researcher-made instruments such as
questionnaires, tests, observation schedules,
checklists, rating scales, interviews, and many
others should meet the qualities of a good research
instrument before they are used in gathering and
collecting data because the success or failure of a
study lies on the data gathered. These qualities are:

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VALIDITY
• The degree to which a measuring instrument
measures what it intends to measure. There is
integrity or truthfulness in the responses

Example:
• The item is “Who is the Father of Classical
Criminology?” Of the 100 students in Criminology
• 90 or 90% answered “Cesare Beccaria” as the Father
of Classical Criminology and 10 or 10% answered
“Cesare Lombroso”.
• Hence, 90 percent of the responses are valid
because the correct answer is “Cesare Beccaria”
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RELIABILITY
• The extent to which a research instrument is
dependable, consistent, and stable. The test agrees
with itself. It is concerned with the consistency of
responses from moment to moment. Even if a
person takes the same test twice, the test yields the
same results
• However, a reliable test or research instrument is
not always valid even if it may be reliable

Example:
• Questionnaire yields the same result twice =
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USABILITY
• The degree to which the research instrument can
be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers,
supervisors, and school managers without undue
expenditure of time, money, and effort. In other
words, usability means practicability

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14
DATA PROCESSING
Chapter 3

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DATA PROCESSING
• After retrieving the research instrument, the next
researcher is to process that raw data into
quantitative and qualitative forms

Data processing involves input, throughput, and output

mechanisms
• INPUT involves the responses from the research
instrument
• THROUGHPUT includes the statistical procedures
and techniques
• OUTPUT, the results of the study which are
presented in data matrix form.
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DATA PROCESSING
• In data processing, quantitative and qualitative forms
are involved to arrive at an exact analysis and
interpretation of the results.
• A numerical value (quantitative) is useless without a
descriptive interpretation (qualitative)

EXAMPLE:
• “How Effective is the Teaching of Mr. X in
Criminological Research Subject to Fourth-Year
Criminology Students?”

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“HOW EFFECTIVE IS THE TEACHING OF MR. X IN CRIMINOLOGICAL
RESEARCH SUBJECT TO FOURTH-YEAR CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTS?”

100 fourth-year criminology students

• 20 said very much effective or 4
• 30 said much effective or 3
• 40 said effective or 2
• 10 said ineffective or 1

Where: (4) very much effective; (3) much effective; (2) effective; and
(1) ineffective.

The weighted arithmetic mean is the appropriate statistical

tool to determine the effectiveness of Mr. X in teaching
Criminological Research Subject, thus the formula is as follows:

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“HOW EFFECTIVE IS THE TEACHING OF MR. X IN CRIMINOLOGICAL

RESEARCH SUBJECT TO FOURTH-YEAR CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTS?”

Input: the responses of 100 fourth-year criminology

students

Throughput: the weighted arithmetic mean as the

procedure

Output: the result which is 2.6 or 3. The quantitative

value is much effective

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3 BASIC STEPS IN
DATA PROCESSING
Chapter 3

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CATEGORIZATION OF DATA
• The grouping of subjects under study according to
the objectives or purposes of the study

Example:
• “Edwin Sutherland’s Theory as Perceived by
the Probationers in CDO.”
• First, categorize the profile of the probationers as
respondents, according to their: age, sex, civil
status, educational attainment, and crime
committed

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CODING OF DATA
• It refers to the process of transforming collected
information or observations to a set of meaningful,
cohesive categories. It is also the process of driving codes
from the observed data. In qualitative research, the data is
obtained from observations, interviews, or questionnaires.
• The purpose of data coding is to bring out the essence and
meaning of the data that respondents have provided.

Example:
• Wherein 4-Strongly Agree; 3-Agree; 2-Disagree; and 1-
Strongly disagree.
• The study was all about the Perception of the
Probationers of the Theory of Differential
Association. Criminal behavior is learned as one of the
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TABULATION OF DATA
• This is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive
at frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing
them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.
• This can be done manually or by the use of a machine
(computer).
• The next slide is an example of tabulating data on the
course/program of the respondents:

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EXAMPLE:
CLASS INTERVAL TALLIES FREQUENCIES

CRIM 卌卌卌卌卌卌卌 35

NURSING 卌卌卌卌卌 25

PSYCH 卌卌卌 || 17

EDUC 卌卌 ||| 13

HRM 卌卌 10

N = 100

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PERCENTAGE 0% TO 100%
P=X/Y, where X denotes the number of
successes and Y denotes the size of the
sample in question

Dividing the value by the total value and

then multiplying the result by 100.
(value/total value)×100%.

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EXAMPLE:
FREQUENCY PROPORTION PERCENT

CRIM 35 0.35 35%

NURSING 25 0.25 25%

PSYCH 17 0.17 17%

EDUC 13 0.13 13%

HRM 10 0.10 10%

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THANK
YOU!
future RCrims 

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