El.

motor Load classification based on the angular speed

The motor drives a load which has a certain characteristics torque-speed requirement.
In general, the general law of the load torque is:
 q
TL T0  (Tn  T0 )( ) .......................................( 1 )
n
where, q may be an integer (…-2,-1,0,1,2,...), ω is the angular speed of the load ωn –rated
angular speed of the load machine, Tn rated load in N.m. T0 initial load in N.m.
According to the general law, most loads faced in the industry can be classified into four groups:
1- Group (1)-Constant-power loads:
They have non linear (falling) characteristic and consists of machines for winding material
under tension. This group includes, for example veneer (‫ )قشره‬cutting machines (lathes)
and machine tools. q= -1, if we neglect the initial conditions, assume T 0 =0 , the speed
torque relation is: k
 T k
TL (Tn )( )  1  n n  ..........................(2) P TL   k ..........................(3)
n   

Figures of speed-torque and speed-power characteristics are shown in the table.

2- Group (2) –Constant toeque loads:
q= 0, if we neglect the initial conditions, assume T 0 =0 , the speed torque relation is:
 P TL Tn k............(5)
T (T )( ) 0 T ............(4)
L n n
n
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 Group (3): Machineries with linear incremental characteristics. They have linear rising
characteristic and consists of machines such as hydraulic pumps, rollers, smoothing machines, and
other processing machines
q= 1, if we neglect the initial conditions, assume T 0 =0 , the speed torque relation is:

 1 Tn Tn
TL (Tn )( )  k.............(6) P TL   k 2 ..........................(7)
n n n
Speed-torque and speed-power characteristics are shown in the table
Group (4)-Quadratic torque :
fan loads (non linear rising or parabolic characteristic) - comprises machines operating
by centrifugal force, such as centrifuges, centrifugal pumps , fans and rotary vane
compressors .
q= 2, if we neglect the initial conditions, assume T 0 =0 , the speed-torque and speed-power
relation are:

Tn 2
P TL   k 3 .............(9)
 2
n
characteristics of this group are shown in the table

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 This means that the load
value doesn’t depend on
the speed. The power is
dependent on the load
speed. Figures of torque
and power characteristics
versus speed are shown in
the table.
examples: elevators,
escalators, conveyor belt,
cranes, positive
displacement pumps,
paper mill drive,
piston compressors as
well as machine tools.

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 Load classification based on the motion direction

• Various motor loads can be broadly classified as:

1. Active loads: they have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
condition such as torques due to gravitational force, tension, compression
and torsion , undergone by an elastic body. They retain their sign when the
direction of the drive motion is changed.
2. Passive loads: load torques which always oppose the motion and change
their sign on the reversal of motion such as torques due to friction, windage
,cutting etc.

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 Components of the load torque
(Dependence of load torque on various factors)
• Load torque T can be divided into three components:

1. Friction torque (Tf) [Link] torque (Tw) 3. work required to be the useful
mechanical work (TL)

Friction torque: Friction will be presented at the motor shaft and also in various parts
of the load. Tf -Is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the
motor shaft. Variation of friction torque with speed is shown in figure below

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Tf - value at stand still is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed.

Friction at zero is called stiction or static friction.

In order to start the drive, the motor torque should at least exceed the stiction.
Friction torque can be resolved into three components as shown below

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Conponent Tv which varies lineary with speed is called viscous frictionand
given by Tv=Bωm

Where B is the viscous friction coefficient

Another component Tc is independent of speed known as Coulomb friction.

The third component Ts accounts for additional torque resent at a standstill. Since Ts
is present at a standstill, it is not taken into account in dynamic analysis.

Tf= Bωm + Tc + Ts = Bωm + Tc

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2. Windage torque (Tw), when the motor rotates, wind generates a torque
opposing the motion, this is known as windage torque.
Windage torque is proportional to the speed square.

Tw= Cω2, where C- proportional constant for windage torque.

3. Torque required to do the useful mechanical work (Tl)

Nature of this torque depends on particular application

a. It may be constant and independent of speed
b. It may be some function of speed
c. It may depend on the position or path followed by the load
d. It may be time-invariant or time-variant
e. It may vary cyclically and its nature may also change with the load’s mode
of operation.
From the above discussion, for the finite speed, load torque is

T l = T L
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+ Bωm + Tc + Cω 2
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In many applications, (Tc + Cω2 ) is very small compared to(Bωm ) and
negligible compared to (TL)

To simplify the analysis, the term (Tc + Cω2 )is accounted by updating
the value of viscous friction coefficient B. With this approximation,

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 Load Equalization
Torque equation for translational movement
v
x
Newton’s law
Fm
M Ff
dMv 
Fm  Ff 
dt

Linear motion for constant mass (M),

dv  d2 x
Fm  Ff M M 2 Ma
dt dt

• First order differential equation for speed

• Second order differential equation for displacement
 Torque equation for rotational motion

 Rotational motion

- Normally is the case for electrical drives

Tl
By neglecting the friction component, torque equation can be written
as:
T , m
d Jm  d m dJ
J T  TL  J  m
dt dt dt
With constant moment of inertia (J),

d m d 2
T  TL  J J 2
dt dt
• First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)
• Second order differential equation for angle (or position)
 Motor torque and power equations

The motor torque should overcome the static load and dynamic load

When the motor shaft torque is equal to the torque exerted by the load (TL =Tst=TΣ=Tref), the motor
is stationary. In such cases the torque and the speed are constant. The motor works on steady state
(constant speed), the dynamic component becomes zero, So, the stationary state occurs when
motor and machine torque are identical. The power. voltage and speed given in the nameplate of
the motor are its rated values, i.e for continuous steady-state operation, The motor power for
continuous steady-state operation is calculated as:

where, k= (1.1-1.3) - is a safety factor and it depends upon the motor power

load, static or referred (equivalent) torque - TL ,Tst,Tref

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 Motor torque

According to motion equation, The motor can have

acceleration, deceleration or steady behavior
Tm > TL , dω/dt > 0 ‫متسارع عندما‬
Tm < TL , dω/dt < 0 ‫متباطئ عندما‬
Tm= TL , dω/dt = 0 ‫مستقرعندما‬

The motion equation without neglecting

small components is:
T = Kt I = TL +J dω/dt + B ω
Where : b- viscous friction coefficient
B- Updated viscous friction coefficient
B ω – Viscous friction torque + Coulomb friction + Windage friction

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 Load Equalisation (‫)معادلة التحميل‬
• In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely within short intervals of time.
• For example, in pressing machines a large torque of short duration is required during
pressing operation, otherwise the torque is nearly zero.
• Other examples are electric hammer, steel rolling, mills and reciprocating pumps.
• To such driving, if the motor is required to supply peak torque demanded by load, first
motor rating has to be high. Secondly, the motor will draw a pulsed current from the
supply.
• When amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion of the supply line
capacity. It gives rise to line voltage fluctuations, which adversely affect other loads
connected to the line.
• In some applications, peak load demanded may form a major proportion of the source
capacity itself, as in blooming mills, then load fluctuations may also adversely affect
the stability of the source.
• These problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a flywheel on the
motor shaft in non-reversible drive.

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• Motor speed- torque characteristic is made drooping (characteristic AC shown in the
below figure.
• Alternatively, in closed-loop current control, torque
Is prevented from exceeding a permissible value
(characteristic ABC in the figure)
• Driving high load period, load torque will be much larger
Compared to the motor torque. Deceleration occurs
Producing a large dynamic torque component ().

• Dynamic torque and motor torque together are able

to produce torque required by the load (). Because of deceleration, the motor speed
falls.
• During the light load period, the motor torque exceeds the load torque causing
acceleration. Speed is brought back to its original value before the next high load
period.

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• Variation of motor and load torques, and speed for a periodic load and for a drooping
motor speed torque are shown in the figure below.
• From this figure, its shown that
peak torque required from the motor
has much smaller value than
the peak load torque.
• Hence, a motor with much smaller
rating than peak load can be used
and peak current drawn by the motor from
the source is reduced by a large amount.
• Fluctuations in motor torque and speed
are also reduced. Since, the power drawn from the source fluctuates very little, this is
called Load equalisation.
• In variable speed and reversible drive, a flywheel cannot be mounted on the motor
shaft as will increase the transient time of the drive by a large amount.
• If the motor is fed from motor-generator set (Ward-Leonard drive), then flywheel can
be mounted on the shaft of the motor-generator set. This arrangement equalizes the
load on the source but not the load on the motor. Consequently, a motor capable of
supplying peak-load torque is required.

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