Unit V: Structured Query Language (SQL)

 Basic Structure
 Set Operations
 Aggregate Functions
 Null Values
 Nested Subqueries
 Derived Relations
 Views
 Modification of the Database
 Joined Relations
 Data Definition Language
 Embedded SQL, ODBC and JDBC
Schema Used in Examples
Basic Structure

 SQL is based on set and relational operations with

certain modifications and enhancements
 A typical SQL query has the form:
select A1, A2, ..., An
from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
 Ais represent attributes
 ris represent relations
 P is a predicate.
 This query is equivalent to the relational algebra
expression.
A1, A2, ..., An(P (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))
 The result of an SQL query is a relation.
The select Clause
 The select clause corresponds to the projection operation of the
relational algebra. It is used to list the attributes desired in the
result of a query.
 Find the names of all branches in the loan relation
select branch-name
from loan
 In the “pure” relational algebra syntax, the query would be:
branch-name(loan)
 An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
select *
from loan
 NOTE: SQL does not permit the ‘-’ character in names, so you
would use, for example, branch_name instead of branch-name in a
real implementation. We use ‘-’ since it looks nicer!
 NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive, meaning you can use
upper case or lower case.
 You may wish to use upper case in places where we use bold font.
The select Clause (Cont.)
 SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in
query results.
 To force the elimination of duplicates, insert
the keyword distinct after select.
Find the names of all branches in the loan
relations, and remove duplicates
select distinct branch-name
from loan
 The keyword all specifies that duplicates not
be removed.
select all branch-name
from loan
The select Clause (Cont.)
The select clause can contain arithmetic
expressions involving the operation, +, –, ,
and /, and operating on constants or attributes
of tuples.
The query:
select loan-number, branch-name,
amount  100
from loan
would return a relation which is the same as
the loan relations, except that the attribute
amount is multiplied by 100.
The where Clause
 The where clause corresponds to the selection
predicate of the relational algebra. If consists of a
predicate involving attributes of the relations that
appear in the from clause.
 The find all loan number for loans made a the Perryridge
branch with loan amounts greater than $1200.
select loan-number
from loan
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’ and amount
> 1200
 Comparison results can be combined using the logical
connectives and, or, and not.
 Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic
expressions.
The where Clause (Cont.)
 SQL Includes a between comparison operator
in order to simplify where clauses that
specify that a value be less than or equal to
some value and greater than or equal to some
other value.
 Find the loan number of those loans with loan
amounts between $90,000 and $100,000
(that is, $90,000 and $100,000)
select loan-number
from loan
where amount between 90000
and 100000
 The from Clause
 The from clause corresponds to the Cartesian product
operation of the relational algebra. It lists the relations to
be scanned in the evaluation of the expression.
 Find the Cartesian product borrower x loan
select 
from borrower, loan
 Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all
customers having a loan at the Perryridge branch.
select customer-name, borrower.loan-number,
amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number
and
branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
The Rename Operation
 The SQL allows renaming relations and
attributes using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
 Find the name, loan number and loan amount
of all customers; rename the column name
loan-number as loan-id.

select customer-name, borrower.loan-

number as loan-id, amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-
number
Tuple Variables
 Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the
use of the as clause.
 Find the customer names and their loan numbers for all
customers having a loan at some branch.
select customer-name, T.loan-number, S.amount
from borrower as T, loan as S
where T.loan-number = S.loan-number
 Find the names of all branches that have greater assets
than some branch located in Brooklyn.

select distinct T.branch-name

from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch-city =
‘Brooklyn’
String Operations
 SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on
character strings. Patterns are described using two special
characters:
 percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
 underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
 Find the names of all customers whose street includes the
substring “Main”.
select customer-name
from customer
where customer-street like ‘%Main%’
 Match the name “Main%”
like ‘Main\%’ escape ‘\’
 SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
 concatenation (using “||”)
 converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
 finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Ordering the Display of Tuples
 List in alphabetic order the names of all customers
having a loan in Perryridge branch
select distinct customer-name
from borrower, loan
where borrower loan-number - loan.loan-
number and
branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
order by customer-name
 We may specify desc for descending order or asc
for ascending order, for each attribute; ascending
order is the default.
 E.g. order by customer-name desc
Duplicates
 In relations with duplicates, SQL can define
how many copies of tuples appear in the
result.
 Multiset versions of some of the relational
algebra operators – given multiset relations r1
and r2:
1. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1
satisfies selections ,, then there are c1 copies of
t1 in  (r1).
2. For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a
copy of tuple A(t1) in A(r1) where A(t1) denotes
the projection of the single tuple t1.
3. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2
Duplicates (Cont.)
 Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2
(C) are as follows:
r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
 Then B(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while B(r1) x r2
would be
{(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
 SQL duplicate semantics:
select A1,, A2, ..., An
from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
is equivalent to the multiset version of the
expression:
 A1,, A2, ..., An(P (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))
Set Operations
 The set operations union, intersect, and except
operate on relations and correspond to the
relational algebra operations 
 Each of the above operations automatically
eliminates duplicates; to retain all duplicates use
the corresponding multiset versions union all,
intersect all and except all.

Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times

in s, then, it occurs:
 m + n times in r union all s
 min(m,n) times in r intersect all s
 max(0, m – n) times in r except all s
Set Operations
 Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or both:
(select customer-name from depositor)
union
(select customer-name from borrower)
 Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.
(select customer-name from depositor)
intersect
(select customer-name from borrower)
 Find all customers who have an account but no loan.
(select customer-name from depositor)
except
(select customer-name from borrower)
Aggregate Functions
 These functions operate on the multiset of
values of a column of a relation, and return a
value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
 Find the average account balance at the
Perryridge branch.
select avg (balance)
from account
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
 Find the number of tuples in the customer
relation.
select count (*)
from customer
 Find the number of depositors in the bank.
select count (distinct customer-name)
from depositor
Aggregate Functions – Group By

 Find the number of depositors for each

branch.
select branch-name, count (distinct
customer-name)
from depositor, account
where depositor.account-number =
account.account-number
group by branch-name
Note: Attributes in select clause outside of
aggregate functions must appear in group
by list
Aggregate Functions – Having Clause

 Find the names of all branches where the

average account balance is more than $1,200.
select branch-name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch-name
having avg (balance) > 1200
Note: predicates in the having clause are
applied after the formation of groups whereas
predicates in the where clause are applied
before forming groups
Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by
null, for some of their attributes
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not
exist.
 The predicate is null can be used to check for null
values.
 E.g. Find all loan number which appear in the loan relation with
null values for amount.
select loan-number
from loan
where amount is null
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is
null
 E.g. 5 + null returns null
 However, aggregate functions simply ignore nulls
 more on this shortly
 Null Values and Three Valued Logic

 Any comparison with null returns unknown

 E.g. 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
 Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
 OR: (unknown or true) = true, (unknown or false) =
unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
 AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, (false and
unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
 NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
 “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P
evaluates to unknown
 Result of where clause predicate is treated as false
if it evaluates to unknown
Null Values and Aggregates
 Total all loan amounts
select sum (amount)
from loan
 Above statement ignores null amounts
 result is null if there is no non-null amount, that is
the
 All aggregate operations except count(*)
ignore tuples with null values on the
aggregated attributes.
Nested Subqueries
 SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of
subqueries.
 A subquery is a select-from-where
expression that is nested within another
query.
 A common use of subqueries is to perform
tests for set membership, set comparisons,
and set cardinality.
Example Query
 Find all customers who have both an account and a
loan at the bank.
select distinct customer-name
from borrower
where customer-name in (select customer-
name
from depositor)
 Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do
not have an account at the bank
select distinct customer-name
from borrower
where customer-name not in (select
customer-name
from depositor)
Example Query
 Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at
the Perryridge branch
select distinct customer-name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and
branch-name = “Perryridge” and
(branch-name, customer-name) in
(select branch-name, customer-name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account-number =
account.account-number)
 Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner.
The formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features.
(Schema used in this example)
Set Comparison
 Find all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch-name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’
 Same query using > some clause
select branch-name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)
Definition of Some Clause
 F <comp> some r t r s.t. (F <comp> t)
Where <comp> can be: 
0
(5< some 5 ) = true
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
6

0
(5< some 5 ) = false

0
(5 = some 5 ) = true

0
(5  some 5 ) = true (since 0  5)
(= some)  in
However, ( some)  not in
Definition of all Clause
 F <comp> all r t r (F <comp> t)

0
(5< all 5 ) = false
6

6
(5< all 10 ) = true

4
(5 = all 5 ) = false

4
(5  all 6 ) = true (since 5  4 and 5  6)
( all)  not in
However, (= all)  in
Example Query
 Find the names of all branches that have
greater assets than all branches located in
Brooklyn.
select branch-name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)
Test for Empty Relations
 The exists construct returns the value true if
the argument subquery is nonempty.
 exists r  r  Ø
 not exists r  r = Ø
Example Query
 Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn.
select distinct S.customer-name
from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch-name
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)
except
(select R.branch-name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account-number = R.account-number
and
S.customer-name = T.customer-name))
 (Schema used in this example)
 Note that X – Y = Ø  X Y
 Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants
Test for Absence of Duplicate Tuples

 The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any

duplicate tuples in its result.
 Find all customers who have at most one account at the
Perryridge branch.
select T.customer-name
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R.customer-name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and
R.account-number = account.account-
number and
account.branch-name = ‘Perryridge’)
 (Schema used in this example)
Example Query
 Find all customers who have at least two
accounts at the Perryridge branch.

select distinct T.customer-name

from depositor T
where not unique (
select R.customer-name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer-name = R.customer-
name and
R.account-number =
account.account-number and
account.branch-name =
‘Perryridge’)
Views
 Provide a mechanism to hide certain data
from the view of certain users. To create a
view we use the command:

create view v as <query expression>

where:
 <query expression> is any legal expression
 The view name is represented by v
Example Queries
 A view consisting of branches and their customers
create view all-customer as
(select branch-name, customer-name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account-number =
account.account-number)
union
(select branch-name, customer-name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number)
 Find all customers of the Perryridge branch

select customer-name
from all-customer
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
Derived Relations
 Find the average account balance of those
branches where the average account balance is
greater than $1200.
select branch-name, avg-balance
from (select branch-name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch-name)
as result (branch-name, avg-balance)
where avg-balance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause,
since we compute the temporary (view) relation
result in the from clause, and the attributes of
result can be used directly in the where clause.
With Clause
 With clause allows views to be defined locally
to a query, rather than globally. Analogous to
procedures in a programming language.
 Find all accounts with the maximum balance

with max-balance(value) as
select max (balance)
from account
select account-number
from account, max-balance
where account.balance = max-
balance.value
Complex Query using With Clause
 Find all branches where the total account deposit is
greater than the average of the total account
deposits at all branches

with branch-total (branch-name, value) as

select branch-name, sum (balance)
from account
group by branch-name
with branch-total-avg(value) as
select avg (value)
from branch-total
select branch-name
from branch-total, branch-total-avg
where branch-total.value >= branch-total-avg.value
Modification of the Database –
Deletion
 Delete all account records at the Perryridge branch
delete from account
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
 Delete all accounts at every branch located in
Needham city.
delete from account
where branch-name in (select branch-name
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Needham’)
delete from depositor
where account-number in
(select account-number
from branch, account
where branch-city = ‘Needham’
and branch.branch-name = account.branch-
name)
 (Schema used in this example)
Example Query
 Delete the record of all accounts with
balances below the average at the bank.
delete from account
where balance < (select avg (balance)
from account)
 Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the
average balance changes
 Solution used in SQL:

1. First, compute avg balance and find all

tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without
recomputing avg or retesting the tuples)
 Modification of the Database – Insertion

 Add a new tuple to account

insert into account
values (‘A-9732’,
‘Perryridge’,1200)
or equivalently

insert into account (branch-name, balance,

account-number)
values (‘Perryridge’, 1200, ‘A-9732’)
 Add a new tuple to account with balance set
to null
insert into account
values (‘A-777’,‘Perryridge’, null)
 Modification of the Database – Insertion

 Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge

branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account
insert into account
select loan-number, branch-name, 200
from loan
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
insert into depositor
select customer-name, loan-number
from loan, borrower
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
and loan.account-number = borrower.account-
number
 The select from where statement is fully evaluated before
any of its results are inserted into the relation (otherwise
queries like
insert into table1 select * from table1
would cause problems
 Modification of the Database –
Updates

 Increase all accounts with balances over

$10,000 by 6%, all other accounts receive 5%.
 Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance  1.06
where balance > 10000

update account
set balance = balance  1.05
where balance  10000
 The order is important
 Can be done better using the case statement
(next slide)
 Case Statement for Conditional Updates

 Same query as before: Increase all accounts

with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all other
accounts receive 5%.

update account
set balance = case
when balance <= 10000
then balance *1.05
else balance * 1.06
end
Update of a View
 Create a view of all loan data in loan relation, hiding the
amount attribute
create view branch-loan as
select branch-name, loan-number
from loan
 Add a new tuple to branch-loan
insert into branch-loan
values (‘Perryridge’, ‘L-307’)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the
tuple
(‘L-307’, ‘Perryridge’, null)
into the loan relation
 Updates on more complex views are difficult or impossible to
translate, and hence are disallowed.
 Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple
views (without aggregates) defined on a single relation
Transactions
 A transaction is a sequence of queries and update statements
executed as a single unit
 Transactions are started implicitly and terminated by one of
 commit work: makes all updates of the transaction permanent in
the database
 rollback work: undoes all updates performed by the transaction.
 Motivating example
 Transfer of money from one account to another involves two steps:
 deduct from one account and credit to another
 If one steps succeeds and the other fails, database is in an inconsistent
state
 Therefore, either both steps should succeed or neither should
 If any step of a transaction fails, all work done by the transaction
can be undone by rollback work.
 Rollback of incomplete transactions is done automatically, in case
of system failures
Transactions (Cont.)
 In most database systems, each SQL
statement that executes successfully is
automatically committed.
 Each transaction would then consist of only a
single statement
 Automatic commit can usually be turned off,
allowing multi-statement transactions, but how to
do so depends on the database system
 Another option in SQL:1999: enclose statements
within
begin atomic
…
end
Joined Relations
 Join operations take two relations and return as a
result another relation.
 These additional operations are typically used as
subquery expressions in the from clause
 Join condition – defines which tuples in the two
relations match, and what attributes are present in
the result of the join.
 Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that
do not match any tuple in the other relation (based
on the
Joinjoin
Typescondition) areJoin
treated.
Conditions
inner join natural
left outer join on <predicate>
right outer join using (A1, A2, ..., An)
full outer join
Joined Relations – Datasets for Examples

 Relation loan
loan-number branch-name amount

L-170 Downtown 3000

L-230 Redwood 4000
L-260 Perryridge 1700

 Relation borrower
customer-name loan-number

Jones L-170
Smith L-230
Hayes L-155
 Note: borrower information missing for L-260 and loan
information missing for L-155
Joined Relations – Examples
 loan inner join borrower on
loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name loan-number

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith L-230

loan left inner join borrower on

loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number

loan-number branch-name amount customer-name loan-number

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith L-230
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null null
Joined Relations – Examples
 loan natural inner join borrower
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith

loan natural right outer join borrower

loan-number branch-name amount customer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-155 null null Hayes
Joined Relations – Examples
 loan full outer join borrower using (loan-number)

loan-number branch-name amount customer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes

Find all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not
both) at the bank.
select customer-name
from (depositor natural full outer join borrower)
where account-number is null or loan-number is null
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Allows the specification of not only a set of relations but also
information about each relation, including:
 The schema for each relation.
 The domain of values associated with each attribute.
 Integrity constraints
 The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.
 Security and authorization information for each relation.
 The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.
Domain Types in SQL
 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length
n.
 varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified
maximum length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-
dependent).
 smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the
integer domain type).
 numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision
of p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal point.
 real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision
floating point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at
least n digits.
 Null values are allowed in all the domain types. Declaring an
attribute to be not null prohibits null values for that attribute.
 create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain
types
create domain person-name char(20) not null
Date/Time Types in SQL (Cont.)
 date. Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date
 E.g. date ‘2001-7-27’
 time. Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
 E.g. time ’09:00:30’ time ’09:00:30.75’
 timestamp: date plus time of day
 E.g. timestamp ‘2001-7-27 09:00:30.75’
 Interval: period of time
 E.g. Interval ‘1’ day
 Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an interval
value
 Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values
 Can extract values of individual fields from date/time/timestamp
 E.g. extract (year from r.starttime)
 Can cast string types to date/time/timestamp
 E.g. cast <string-valued-expression> as date
Create Table Construct
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
 r is the name of the relation
 each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
 Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
 Example:
create table branch
(branch-name char(15) not null,
branch-city char(30),
assets integer)
Integrity Constraints in Create Table
 not null
 primary key (A1, ..., An)
 check (P), where P is a predicate

Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for branch and

ensure that the values of assets are non-negative.
create table branch
(branch-namechar(15),
branch-city char(30)
assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
check (assets >= 0))

primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures not

null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in SQL-89
Drop and Alter Table Constructs
 The drop table command deletes all information
about the dropped relation from the database.
 The after table command is used to add attributes to
an existing relation. All tuples in the relation are
assigned null as the value for the new attribute. The
form of the alter table command is
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to
relation r and D is the domain of A.
 The alter table command can also be used to drop
attributes of a relation

alter table r drop A

where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
 Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases
Embedded SQL
 The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety
of programming languages such as Pascal, PL/I, Fortran,
C, and Cobol.
 A language to which SQL queries are embedded is
referred to as a host language, and the SQL structures
permitted in the host language comprise embedded SQL.
 The basic form of these languages follows that of the
System R embedding of SQL into PL/I.
 EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL
request to the preprocessor
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > END-EXEC
Note: this varies by language. E.g. the Java embedding
uses
# SQL { …. } ;
Example Query
From within a host language, find the names and cities of
customers with more than the variable amount dollars in some
account.
Specify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it
EXEC SQL
declare c cursor for
select customer-name, customer-city
from depositor, customer, account
where depositor.customer-name = customer.customer-name

and depositor account-number = account.account-

number
and account.balance > :amount
END-EXEC
Embedded SQL (Cont.)
 The open statement causes the query to be evaluated
EXEC SQL open c END-EXEC
 The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the
query result to be placed on host language variables.
EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn, :cc END-EXEC
Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result
 A variable called SQLSTATE in the SQL communication area
(SQLCA) gets set to ‘02000’ to indicate no more data is
available
 The close statement causes the database system to delete the
temporary relation that holds the result of the query.
EXEC SQL close c END-EXEC
Note: above details vary with language. E.g. the Java embedding
defines Java iterators to step through result tuples.
Updates Through Cursors
 Can update tuples fetched by cursor by declaring that the cursor
is for update
declare c cursor for
select *
from account
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
for update
 To update tuple at the current location of cursor
update account
set balance = balance + 100
where current of c
Dynamic SQL
 Allows programs to construct and submit SQL queries at run
time.
 Example of the use of dynamic SQL from within a C program.

char * sqlprog = “update account

set balance = balance * 1.05
where account-number = ?”
EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from :sqlprog;
char account [10] = “A-101”;
EXEC SQL execute dynprog using :account;
 The dynamic SQL program contains a ?, which is a place
holder for a value that is provided when the SQL program is
executed.
 Schemas, Catalogs, and Environments

 Three-level hierarchy for naming relations.

 Database contains multiple catalogs
 each catalog can contain multiple schemas
 SQL objects such as relations and views are contained within
a schema
 e.g. catalog5.bank-schema.account
 Each user has a default catalog and schema, and the
combination is unique to the user.
 Default catalog and schema are set up for a connection
 Catalog and schema can be omitted, defaults are
assumed
 Multiple versions of an application (e.g. production and
test) can run under separate schemas
Procedural Extensions and Stored
Procedures
 SQL provides a module language
 permits definition of procedures in SQL, with if-
then-else statements, for and while loops, etc.
 more in Chapter 9
 Stored Procedures
 Can store procedures in the database
 then execute them using the call statement
 permit external applications to operate on the
database without knowing about internal details
 These features are covered in Chapter 9
(Object Relational Databases)
The loan and borrower Relations
The Result of loan inner join borrower on loan.loan-number =
borrower.loan-number
The Result of loan left outer join borrower on loan-number
The Result of loan natural inner join borrower
Join Types and Join Conditions
The Result of loan natural right outer join borrower
The Result of loan full outer join borrower using(loan-number)
SQL Data Definition for Part of the Bank Database