Artificial Intelligence
Chapter 1: Introduction
Michael Scherger
Department of Computer
Science
Kent State University
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 1
What is Intelligence?
• Main Entry: in·tel·li·gence
Pronunciation: in-'te-l&-j&n(t)s
Function: noun
Etymology: Middle English, from Middle French, from Latin intelligentia, from
intelligent-, intelligens intelligent
• 1 a (1) : the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations :
REASON; also : the skilled use of reason (2) : the ability to apply knowledge to
manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective
criteria (as tests) b Christian Science : the basic eternal quality of divine Mind c :
mental acuteness : SHREWDNESS
• 2 a : an intelligent entity; especially : ANGEL b : intelligent minds or mind <cosmic
intelligence>
• 3 : the act of understanding : COMPREHENSION
• 4 a : INFORMATION, NEWS b : information concerning an enemy or possible enemy
or an area; also : an agency engaged in obtaining such information
• 5 : the ability to perform computer functions
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 2
A Bit of Humor
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 3
Goals of this Course
• Become familiar with AI techniques,
including their implementations
– Be able to develop AI applications
• Python, LiSP, Prolog, CLIPS
• Understand the theory behind the
techniques, knowing which techniques to
apply when (and why)
• Become familiar with a range of
applications of AI, including “classic” and
current systems.
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 4
What is Artificial
Intelligence?
• Not just studying intelligent systems,
but building them…
• Psychological approach: an intelligent
system is a model of human
intelligence
• Engineering approach: an intelligent
system solves a sufficiently difficult
problem in a generalizable way
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 5
A Bit of AI History (section
1.3)
• Gestation (1943-1955)
– Early learning theory, first neural network, Turing test
– McCulloch and Pitts artificial neuron, Hebbian learning
• Birth (1956)
– Name coined by McCarthy
– Workshop at Dartmouth
• Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952-1969)
– GPS, physical symbol system hypothesis
– Geometry Theorem Prover (Gelertner), Checkers (Samuels)
– Lisp (McCarthy), Theorem Proving (McCarthy), Microworlds
(Minsky et. al.)
– “neat” (McCarthy @ Stanford) vs. “scruffy” (Minsky @ MIT)
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 6
A Bit of AI History (section
1.3)
• Dose of Reality (1966-1973)
– Combinatorial explosion
• Knowledge-based systems (1969-1979)
• AI Becomes an Industry (1980-present)
– Boom period 1980-88, then AI Winter
• Return of Neural Networks (1986-present)
• AI Becomes a Science (1987-present)
– SOAR, Internet as a domain
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 7
What is Artificial Intelligence?
(again)
• Systems that think like • Systems that think
humans rationally
– Cognitive Modeling – “Laws of Thought”
Approach approach
– “The automation of – “The study of mental
activities that we associate faculties through the use
with human thinking...” of computational models”
– Bellman 1978 – Charniak and McDermott
• Systems that act like • Systems that act
humans rationally
– Turing Test Approach – Rational Agent Approach
– “The art of creating – “The branch of CS that is
machines that perform concerned with the
functions that require automation of intelligent
intelligence when
performed by people” behavior”
– Kurzweil 1990 – Lugar and Stubblefield
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 8
Acting Humanly
• The Turing Test
(1950)
– Can machines think?
– Can machines Human
behave intelligently? ?
Human
• Operational test for Interrogator
intelligent behavior
– The Imitation Game
AI System
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Acting Humanly
• Turing Test (cont)
– Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a
30% chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes
– Anticipated all major arguments against AI in
following 50 years
– Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,
reasoning, language understanding, learning
• Problem!
– The turning test is not reproducible,
constructive, or amenable to mathematical
analysis
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Thinking Humanly
• 1960’s cognitive revolution
• Requires scientific theories of internal
activities of the brain
– What level of abstraction? “Knowledge” or
“Circuits”
– How to validate?
• Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (top-
down)
• Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-up)
• Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience
– Now distinct from AI
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 11
Thinking Rationally
• Normative (or prescriptive) rather than
descriptive
• Aristotle: What are correct arguments /
thought processes?
• Logic notation and rules for derivation for
thoughts
• Problems:
– Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by
logical deliberation
– What is the purpose of thinking? What
thoughts should I have?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 12
Acting Rationally
• Rational behavior
– Doing the right thing
• What is the “right thing”
– That which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given available information
• We do many (“right”) things without thinking
– Thinking should be in the service of rational action
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 13
Applied Areas of AI
• Heuristic Search
• Computer Vision
• Adversarial Search (Games)
• Fuzzy Logic
• Natural Language Processing
• Knowledge Representation
• Planning
• Learning
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 14
Examples
• Playing chess • Recognizing
• Driving on the speech
highway • Diagnosing
• Mowing the lawn diseases
• Answering • Translating
questions languages
• Data mining
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 15
Heuristic Search
• Very large search space
– Large databases
– Image sequences
– Game playing
• Algorithms
– Guaranteed best answer
– Can be slow – literally years
• Heuristics
– “Rules of thumb”
– Very fast
– Good answer likely, but not guaranteed!
• Searching foreign intelligence for terrorist
activity.
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 16
Computer Vision
• Computationally taxing
– Millions of bytes of data
per frame
– Thirty frames per second
• Computers are scalar /
Images are
multidimensional
• Image Enhancement
vs. Image
Understanding
• Can you find the
terrorist in this picture?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 17
Adversarial Search
• Game theory...
– Two player, zero sum – checkers, chess, etc.
• Minimax
– My side is MAX
– Opponent is MIN
• Alpha-Beta
– Evaluation function...”how good is board”
– Not reliable...play game (look ahead) as deep
as possible and use minimax.
– Select “best” backed up value.
• Where will Al-Qaeda strike next?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 18
Adversarial Search
1
X X O
MIN O
...
2 6
X X O X X O
MAX O O O O
X X
3 4 5 7 8 9
X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O
O O X O O O O X O O O O O O
X X X X X X X X X X
1-0=1 1-2=-1 1-1=0 *91* 0 10
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 19
Example: Tic Tac Toe #1
• Precompiled
move table.
move
table
• For each input encode look
up
board, a specific
move (output
board)
• Perfect play, but
is it AI?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 20
Example: Tic Tac Toe #2
• Represent board as a magic square, one
integer per square
• If 3 of my pieces sum to 15, I win
• Predefined strategy:
– 1. Win
– 2. Block
– 3. Take center
– 4. Take corner
– 5. Take any open square
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 21
Example: Tic Tac Toe #3
• Given a board, consider all possible moves (future
boards) and pick the best one
• Look ahead (opponent’s best move, your best
move…) until end of game
• Functions needed:
– Next move generator
– Board evaluation function
• Change these 2 functions (only) to play a
different game!
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 22
Fuzzy Logic
• Basic logic is binary
– 0 or 1, true or false, black or white, on or
off, etc...
• But in the real world there are of
“shades”
– Light red or dark red
– 0.64756
• Membership functions
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 23
Fuzzy Logic
Linguistic
Appetit
Variable
e
Linguistic
Light Moderat Heav Values
e y
1
Membership
Grade
1000 2000 3000
Calories Eaten Per Day
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 24
Natural Language
Processing
• Speech recognition vs. natural language
processing
– NLP is after the words are recognized
• Ninety/Ten Rule
– Can do 90% of the translation with 10% time, but 10%
work takes 90% time
• Easy for restricted domains
– Dilation
– Automatic translation
– Control your computer
• Say “Enter” or “one” or “open”
– Associative calculus
• Understand by doing
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 25
Natural Language
Processing
Net for Basic Noun Group
adjective
determiner noun
“The big grey dog” S1 S2 S3
Net for Prepositional Group
preposition NOUNG
“by the table in the corner” S1 S2 S3
Net for Basic Noun Group
PREPG
adjective
determiner noun
“The big grey dog by the S1 S2 S3
table in the corner”
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 26
Knowledge Representation
• Predicate Logic
– On(table, lamp)
– In(corner, table)
– Near(table, dog)
– Prolog
• Graph Based
– Semantic Networks
– Frames
• Rule Based
– Expert Systems
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 27
Planning
• Robotics
– If a robot enters a
room and sits down,
what is the “route”.
Table
• Closed world
• Rule based Chair
systems
• Blocks world
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 28
Planning
Robot
• Pickup(x) Hand
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
handempty(),
– Holding(x) C
• Putdown(x) A B
– Holding(x)
Clear(B) On(C, A) OnTable(A)
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
Clear(C) Handempty OnTable(B)
handempty()
• Stack(x, y)
– Holding(x), clear(y)
– Handempty(), on(x, y), A
clear(x)
• Unstack(x, y) B
– Handempty(), clear(x),
on(x, y) C
– Holding(x), clear(x) Goal: [On(B, C) ^ On(A,
B)]
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 29
Learning
• Neural Networks
• Evolutionary Computing
• Knowledge in Learning
• Reinforcement Learning
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 30
