University Institute of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

& ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Subject Name: Computer Network
Subject Code: CST-273/ ITT-273

Prepared By :Er. Navjyot Kaur(E8508)

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER
UNIT-I
Syllabus
Introduction: Introduction to network, types of transmission technologies, Network Categories: LAN, MAN, WAN (Wireless /Wired),
Network Software: Concept of Layers, Protocols, interfaces and services. Reference Models: OSI, TCP/IP and comparison, Concept of
Topologies.
Physical Layer: Bit rate, Baud rate, Bandwidth, Transmission Impairments: Attenuation, Distortion, Noise; Data rate limits: Nyquist
formula, Shannon Formula, Modulation & modems; Transmission Modes, Multiplexing: Frequency Division, Time Division, Wavelength
Division
Transmission Media and Switching: Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optics, Wireless Transmission (radio, microwave & infrared);Message
switching, Circuit Switching & Packet Switching.
UNIT-II
Data Link Layer(Flow and Error Control ): Design issues, Error Detection & Correction; Flow control & Error Control; Sliding Window
Protocols, ARQ: Stop & Wait , Go Back n, Selective Repeat ; Examples of DLL protocols – HDLC, PPP;
Data Link Layer (Medium Access Sub layer) Channel Allocation; Random Access: ALOHA, CSMA protocols; Controlled Access: Polling,
Reservation, Token Passing; Examples of IEEE standards(802.2,802.3,802.4, 802.5), Basics of Wi-Fi(802.11).
Network Layer: Design issues, Logical Addressing: IPv4 & IPv6; Packet Formats & their comparison IPv4 & IPv6; Routing Algorithms:
Distance Vector, Link State

UNIT-III
Network Layer(Continue): Congestion Control: Principles of congestion control; Congestion prevention policies, Leaky bucket & Token
Bucket Algorithms.
Transport Layer: Services provided to upper layers, Elements of Transport protocols. Addressing, Flow Control & buffering; Example
Transport protocols: TCP, SCTCP & UDP.
Application Layer and Network Security: Domain Name System, Simple Network Management Protocol, Electronic Mail, World Wide
Web, Basics of authentication, Public and Private Key Cryptography, Digital Signatures and Certificates, Firewalls.
 Chapter 3

Data and Signals

Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data

refers to information that is continuous; digital data
refers to information that has discrete states. Analog
data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data

Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Note

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals
Note

In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.
3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as

simple or composite. A simple periodic
analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. A
composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
Figure 3.2 A sine wave

s(t ) = A sin(2πft + φ)

A-Amplitude

2π = 360 degree =1Period

φ --Phase
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and
phase,
but different frequencies
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency
 Example
3.3
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.
The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:
 Example
3.4
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is
10−3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We make the following
substitutions:.
 Example
3.5
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10 −3
kHz).
Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and
frequency,
but different phases
 Example
3.6
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.
What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period

The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one

period.
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
 Example
3.10
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth?
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
 3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available

2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate

BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 M

L-Levels for sending signals
Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal transmission rate is
2B:
C = 2B

eg: B=3100 Hz; C=6200 bps

With multilevel signaling

C = 2B log2 M,
where M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.
 Example
3.34
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Example
3.35
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
In 1944,Claude Shannon introduced a formula,
called the Shannon capacity, to determine the
theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) = power of signal/power of noise

A high SNR means a high-quality signal.

Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
❑ Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
❑ The imperfection causes signal impairment.
❑ This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium.

❑ What is sent is not what is received.

❑ Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise.
 Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.
• it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal.
The decibel(dB) measures the relative strengths

of two signals or one signal at two different

points.
 Exampl

e
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its

power is reduced to one-half.

P2= (1/2)P1.

In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

 Exampl

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10

times.

This means that P2 = 10P1 .

What is the amplification (gain of power)?

40
Distortio

n
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or
shape.
Noise

Several types of noise, such as thermal noise,

induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.
 Exampl

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is

1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution

The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

43
 Exampl

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

44
 Chapter 5
Analog Transmission
5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing

one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on
the information in digital data.

Topics discussed in this section:

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog
conversion
Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog
conversion
Note

Bit rate is the number of bits per

second. Baud rate is the number of
signal
elements per second.

In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift
keying
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift
keying
Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.
Note
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved by spreading.
 MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than

the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is
the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link. As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Figure Dividing a link into channels
Categories of multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing
Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
FDM process
FDM demultiplexing example
Figure 6.6 Example 6.1
Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing
Note
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
Figure 6.11 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
Figure 6.12 TDM
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate

channels into one high-rate one.
Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing
Note
In synchronous TDM, the data rate
of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
 Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is 3 kbps. If 1 bit at a
time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot,
(b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit
duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms
(same as bit duration).
 Example 6.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot. This
means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame is 3 ×
1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an
input unit.
Figure 6.15 Interleaving
Figure 6.18 Empty slots
Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing
Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing
References:
• https://beginnersbook.com/2020/10/computer-network-data-and-sig
nals-in-physical-layer/
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_net
work/physical_layer_introduction.htm
• http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072967757/student_view0/
chapter3/powerpoint_slides.html
• http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072967757/student_view0/
chapter4/powerpoint_slides.html
• http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072967757/student_view0/
chapter5/powerpoint_slides.html