Crime Victims

• There is no generally accepted definition of who or what the

term “crime victim” encompasses.
• A person can be classified as a crime victim regardless of
whether a perpetrator has been identified, arrested, charged or
convicted and regardless of any kinship relation between the
victim and the perpetrator.
• Those suffering physical injury or loss of or damage to property
as a result of criminal actions
• A natural person who suffers physical or psychological injury
or material loss by reason of criminal offence committed
whether or not the perpetrator is identified, apprehended,
prosecuted or convicted.
 Victim Vs Survivor
• The term victim is complex and contested (Walklate,
2017).
• Crime affects a broad audience. As a result, the
distinction between a survivor and a victim is blurred.
• Although the two concepts are used often
interchangeably (Tapley, 2016), survivors and victims
differ fundamentally.
• Survivor and victim are distinct concepts. They mean
different things to different people.
• Few states have legislation concerning victims of crime
 Crime victim
• The category “crime victim” is quite heterogeneous.
The public debate, however, often sees victims as a
homogenous group, characterised by similar
reactions.
• The type and strength of the reactions are highly
individual, however.
• Crime may entail no emotional reactions for some
persons, while others experience it as an extremely
traumatic event involving strong cognitive and
emotional stress.
 Crime victim
• It is impossible to predict how an individual will
react to a trauma, or how long the recovery phase
will take.
• There are, however, several factors that do generally
affect the extent of the reaction.
• In addition to recovery time, variations in the extent
of the reaction are influenced by the type of event,
the victim’s personal characteristics and situation,
the victim’s social network and the consequences of
the crime
 Crime victim
• The psychological reactions are often the most
common consequence of crime.
• At the same time the psychological reaction is the
least visible, and therefore the most difficult for
others to understand.
• It is therefore important that people who encounter
victims have knowledge and understanding of
victims’ reactions.
 Who is a victim of crime?
• A natural person who has suffered injury as a direct result of criminal
offense whether or not the injury was reasonably foreseeable by the
offender
• A citizen, a legal person or an organisation that has directly suffered
harm as a result of a criminal act
• A natural person who has suffered harm including physical or mental
injury, emotional suffering or economic loss directly caused by a
criminal offence
• Physical persons who have suffered from crime either directly or
indirectly.
• A victim is someone who has suffered a misfortune through no fault
of his or her own.
 Primary victimisation
• Primary victimisation –refers to a direct impact that crime
has on a victim. This can range from :
• The financial loss associated with goods stolen
• Time taken off work to sort out the aftermath of a burglary
• Physical injury as a result of an assault
• The post-traumatic stress syndrome reported by some
victims of rape
• Shock, and loss of trust or faith in the society
• Guilt often associated with feelings of anger and or fear
• Changes in lifestyle
 Secondary Victimisation
• Research has indicated that individuals who are
involved in the criminal justice process as either
victims or witnesses frequently feel let down by that
process. This arises from;
• Not being kept informed of what was happening in
their case
• Being treated unsympathetically by the
professionals working in the criminal justice process
• Not being believed when they are giving evidence.
 Indirect victimisation
• Indirect victimisation –draws attention to
experiences such as those involved in murder, in
which families of both the murderer and the murder
victim can feel victimised by their experiences of
the criminal justice process. These more indirect
experiences can manifest themselves in relation to;
• Feelings of bereavement
• Being under suspicion themselves for what has
happened
• Not being able to make sense of what has happened.
 Do victims of crime have rights?
• The provision of rights to victims of crime is controversial
• Much of the modern victim policy agenda in most
jurisdictions traces its roots back to the 1985 UN Declaration
of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power. The declaration speaks of victims being afforded:
• Access to justice
• Fair treatment and compassion
• Respect for their dignity
• Information about their role and the scope , timing and
progress of proceedings as well as disposal of their case
• Assistance from the criminal justice system
• Protection from unnecessary delay or inconvenience
 Rights afforded to victims
• In Scotland, victims are entitled to understand the
information being presented to them by the criminal
justice actors
• In England and wales, prosecutors must meet with
victims personally, prior to court proceedings to
offer explanations and answer questions
• In south Africa, victims have a right to receive
information including information concerning
victims’ rights as victims
 Rights afforded to victims
• In European Union, member states must ensure that
measures are available to protect victims and their
family members from secondary and repeat
victimisation; intimidation and retaliation; against
risk of emotional or psychological harm; protect the
dignity of victims during questioning.
• In the USA, the victims have a right to be
reasonably protected from the accused
• In New Zealand, judicial officers may withhold part
of the statement from offenders to protect victim’s
physical safety or security
 Victim participation in criminal justice
• The system for victims’ participation in the Court’s
proceedings has been described as one of the major
innovations and achievements of the Statute.
• The role of victims under the Statute is not confined
to that of witnesses.
• Victims, for the first time, have the opportunity to
tell their stories before an international criminal
court and to obtain, where appropriate, some form
of reparation for their suffering.
 Victim participation in criminal justice
• The purpose of victim participation is to give
victims a voice, and thereby contribute to the truth
finding process.
• The most direct, and arguably most meaningful,
form of participation is the victims’ giving
testimony as witnesses.
• One of the arguments in favour of victims’
participation at trial is that since victims lived
through the relevant events, their experience and
knowledge provide the Judges with important
information on the facts relevant to the case.
 Victim participation in criminal justice
• Victims can provide Judges with knowledge that
only those who experienced the events possess and
‘their attendance in person at the trial may help in
establishing the truth.
• Victims can make meaningful contributions to the
Chamber’s ‘determination of the truth’.
• However, sometimes witness evidence has been
found not reliable.
• There is a need to allocate more resources than at
present on participation of victims.
 Victim participation in criminal justice
• There is need to provide ‘physical, psychological rehabilitation
and/or material support to those who have suffered ‘physical,
psychological and/or material harm as a result of crimes.
• The Rome Statute gives victims the right to participate in
proceedings, the right to request reparation and the right to legal
representation.
• The ICC is the first court of its kind to explicitly include
reparation for victims.
• Reparation should aim to heal and allow victims to cope with the
past as well as the future.
• Reparation, is not about going back to the way things were before:
victims are generally unable to return to their original condition
 Impact of crime
• Anyone can become the victim of crime
• Individual’s response to experience of crime can be hugely
variable.
• Nearly all crimes result in victims, regardless of whether the
crime is reported to the authorities and a suspect is apprehended
or other action is taken by the justice system.
• Crime leads to extensive and long-lasting consequences. These
crimes do not only affect the victims, their families and friends.
• Being the target or victim of a rape, robbery, or assault is a
terrible burden that can have considerable long-term
consequences.
• Crime affects the entire society through the feelings of fear and
insecurity that they spread.
 Impact of crime
• All crime victims should be treated with the same respect
and empathy.
• Governmental authorities and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) should offer the same standard of
service regardless of the victim’s sex, race, age, handicap,
sexual orientation, social status, lifestyle, etc.
• There is a tendency to see certain groups as more worthy
of protection than others.
• However, it can never be acceptable to provide varying
standards of treatment to victims.
• It is possible that certain groups of victims may be in
need of special eff orts at various times.
 Consequences of crime
• Crime may lead to a number of negative effects –
economic damages, physical damages, and
psychological reactions, social consequences and
practical problems – which can be of a temporary or
more lasting nature.
• The costs of victimization can include such things as
damaged property, pain and suffering to victims, and
the involvement of the police and other agencies of
the justice system.
 Economic costs
• Crime often results in various forms of indirect and
direct economic damages for the victim. There may
be direct cash or property losses associated with the
crime, costs related to property damages, medical
fees or loss of income due to injury.
• The direct economic damages are naturally quite
varied – some crimes may result in large direct
economic damages, while others are associated with
quite low nominal damages.
 Economic costs
• The indirect economic damages may, in many cases,
be quite large. They may involve costs for an abused
woman to change her locks and telephone number or
even to relocate to a new town to escape an abusive
ex-husband or partner.
• They may encompass therapy costs for the
psychological damage of rape or robbery, loss of
future income for an assault victim etc.
• One common cost is associated with victims
attempting to protect themselves from future crimes
through the installation of alarm systems, security
 Economic costs
• Many crimes affect persons who are already in a
precarious economic position.
• For these individuals, the costs associated with
replacing stolen goods or repairing damaged
property can often have serious consequences.
• When the costs of goods taken during property
crimes is added to productivity losses caused by
injury, pain, and emotional trauma, the cost of
victimization is estimated to be in the hundreds of
billions of dollars.
 Economic costs
• The taxpayer is burdened with the costs of crime and
justice. These include assisting the victims and
medical treatment for the injuries and services to the
victims.
• The losses suffered by victims, such as lost wages,
pain, suffering, and reduced quality of life.
• Crime produces social costs that must be paid by non-
victims as well. These include primarily treatment for
HIV/AIDS and psychiatric care, as well as paying for
the cost of incarceration, policing, legal adjudication,
and the cost to crime victims for heroin abuse.
 Economic costs
• There is also the cost of lost productivity—heroin
addicts are less than half as likely to have a full-time
job as compared with the national average—and the
treatment of heroin addiction in clinics and hospitals
• In addition to these societal costs, victims may
suffer long-term losses in earnings and occupational
attainment.
• If victims have no insurance, the long-term effects
of the crime may have devastating financial as well
as emotional and physical consequences.
 Possibilities for Economic Compensation
• The opportunities for compensation have varied
over time. From early times when compensation
was paid directly to the victim, the process evolved
into the use of fines as payment for crimes
committed.
• Insurance Companies – Insurance Claims- Many
crimes are never solved, and thus the perpetrator is
unknown. In some cases where the perpetrator is
known, he/she may lack the financial ability to pay
compensation.
 Economic compensation
• In cases where the perpetrator is unknown or the
enforcement service comes to the conclusion that
the perpetrator is unable to pay there is often an
insurance policy, either public or private, which can
compensate the damages
• However, in many developing countries, not so
many people actually can use it since insurance is
not still widespread among population enough.
 Psychological Reactions

• Although crime often leads to considerable economic

and physical damages for the victim, the psychological
experience is often the most critical and difficult to
treat.
• This psychological reaction is also the least visible, and
therefore the most difficult for others to understand.
• An arm in a sling or a bandage around the head is an
outward and visible sign that a person is not totally
well.
• Psychological pain generally lacks these signs, and is
therefore not always comprehended by others.
 Psychological Reactions
• The category “crime victim” is quite heterogeneous.
• The public debate, however, often sees victims as a
homogenous group, characterised by similar
reactions.
• The type and strength of the reactions are highly
individual, however.
• Crime may entail no emotional reactions for some
persons, while others experience it as an extremely
traumatic event involving strong cognitive and
emotional stress.
 Psychological reaction
• Even small, apparently negligible crimes may involve
considerable stress for the victim.
• Many also have feelings of fear and helplessness and
experience physical reactions such as difficulty breathing
or chest pressure.
• It is not uncommon for the victim to experience feelings
of rage towards the perpetrator. This rage may even be
focussed on other individuals, such as the police of an
employer.
• Certain types of crimes, such as sexual assault or home
burglary, also tend to leave the victim feeling dirty or
 Psychological reaction
• Much of the victim’s energy immediately following
the crime is expended on finding an explanation to
why he/she was chosen.
• Victims may suffer stress and anxiety long after the
incident is over and the justice process has been
completed.
• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)—a condition
whose symptoms include depression, anxiety, and
self-destructive behavior—is a common problem
especially when the victim does not receive adequate
support from family and friends.
 Psychological reaction
• To shield themselves, some victims deny the attack
occurred or question whether they were “really
raped.” But denial only goes so far and does not
shield victims from the long-term effects of sexual
assault.
• Many people fear crime, especially the elderly, the
poor, and minority group members. Their fear is
escalated by shocking news accounts of crime and
violence.
 Psychological reaction
• While hearing about crime causes fear, those who experience
it are even more likely to be fearful and change their
behaviors.
• Victims of violent crime are the most deeply affected, fearing
a repeat of their attack.
• Many go through a fundamental life change, viewing the
world more suspiciously and as a less safe, controllable, and
meaningful place.
• Some develop a generalized fear of crime and worry about
being revictimized.
• Crime can have devastating effects on its victims, who may
take years to recover from the incident.
 Psychological reaction
• Relationship Stress -Spousal abuse takes a
particularly heavy toll on victims.
• Numerous research efforts show that victims of
spousal abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence
of psychological problems such as depression and
substance abuse disorders.
• Psychological abuse can lead to depression and
other long-term disabilities.
 Psychological reaction
• Vicarious Fear- Even if people are not personally victimized those
who observe or are exposed to violence on a routine basis become
fearful.
• Hearing about another’s victimization may make people timid and
cautious.
• If they don’t fear for themselves, they become concerned for others
— their wives or husbands, children, elderly parents, and siblings.
• Not only are people likely to move out of their neighborhood if
they become crime victims, but they are also likely to relocate if
they hear that a friend or neighbour has suffered a break-in or
burglary.
• Vicarious fear is escalated by shocking news accounts of crime and
violence.
 Psychological reaction
• Antisocial Behavior- Research shows that both boys
and girls are more likely to engage in violent
behavior if they were the targets of physical abuse
and were exposed to violent behavior among adults
they know or live with or were exposed to weapons.
• People who were physically or sexually abused,
especially young males, are much more likely to
smoke, drink, and take drugs than are non-abused
youth.
• As adults, victims are more likely to commit crimes
themselves.
 Physical damages
• Physical injury may occur in a wide variety of crimes.
The risk of suffering physical injury varies according
to the type of crime.
• In cases of violence without weapons – primarily
punching or kicking – we can say that the injuries are
largely cuts, bruises, swelling of the face or head and
facial fractures.
• Similar injuries may occur on the arms, legs and chest.
Life-threatening injuries can arise through
strangulation or severe head injuries.
• Victims of sexual crimes such as rape often lack
Factors that affect the extent of the reaction to a
traumatic event
a) The type of event-Psychological studies show that
crimes involving violence or the threat of violence
lead to a worse psychological state for the victim than
non-violent crimes.
b) Another factor that can exacerbate the event is the
existence of an individual who did not intervene to
stop the crime despite the opportunity to do so.
 Factors continued
c) The victim’s personal characteristics and situation-Studies
show that apparently trivial crimes can also lead to serious
reactions.
• This is due to the fact that the ability to handle traumatic
situations is affected by the victim’s personal characteristics.
• A number of reports have found that young victims are
generally less affected by emotions associated with crime
than the elderly.
• This does not hold true for children, however. The sex of the
victim is also an important factor in determining the extent of
the reaction.
• Studies show that women tend to be more affected than men.
 continued
d) The victim’s social network and the consequences
of the crime-
• The ability to successfully deal with a traumatic
event is thus largely dependent on the type of crime
and the personal resources that an individual has at
his/her disposal.
• Traumatic situations can be handled through
discussions with other individuals as well.
• It is extremely important for an individual to have
someone to talk to following a crisis.
 Social network
• Research indicates that social support following a
crime is positively correlated with physical and
psychological health.
• Crime victims who receive support from people in
their surroundings following the event have a greater
probability of recovering from the trauma than those
without support.
• Friends, colleagues and especially family are
important social resources in times of crisis. They can
also assist in the practical matters associated with the
 continued
e) The relationship between the victim and the
perpetrator
• A crime committed by someone known to (and
possibly trusted by) the victim leads to more
complicated and serious psychological problems than
an attack by a stranger
• One group especially affected by this is women who
are battered by a known assailant.
• Another vulnerable group is children who are abused
by someone in whom they have sought love and care.
 continued
f) Another factor affecting the extent of reaction to
crime is previous experience with crime and other
traumatic events.
• Persons with previous experience of crime and
trauma can meet the new experience with increased
vigour.
• People who had previously been exposed to crime
react more strongly than those who had never been
victims.
 continued
g) The extent of the reaction is also influenced by the
personal situation of the victim.
• Studies show that crime is experienced as more
difficult by those who already have a difficult
personal life, such as family troubles,
unemployment and/or health problems.
• There are also indications that an individual with
poor self-esteem will have more difficulty
recovering from a traumatic event.
 continued
h) The After-Effect of Crime
• Another factor that affects the consequences a crime
has on the individual is the after-effects of the crime.
• The actual event itself may not be the largest threat to
an individual’s mental health.
• Of equal importance is the treatment (or lack of
treatment) that the individual receives following the
crime.
• Individuals in a period of crisis must be treated in a
manner that reduces the risk of “secondary
 Social Consequences
• All three results of crime – economic loss, physical injury and
psychological reactions – may involve negative social
consequences for the victim.
• Some individuals find that the crime completely alters their
lives.
• They may be forced to completely change their situation, such
as changing occupations because of a fear of working at night
or changing residences due to a feeling of insecurity.
• The latter example is especially relevant for the thousands of
women and children who live with the threat of violence every
day.
• In these cases it is almost always the battered woman who has
to move to escape the violent man, a move that involves large
 Social Consequences
• Another social consequence, which may arise as a result of
crime, is that the victim often pulls away from contact with
other individuals.
• This could be because the victim does not wish to discuss the
event because of feelings of shame or painful memories or
because the victim no longer trusts others.
• In some situations the case is reverse – other people feel such
a strong uneasiness that they withdraw when the victim
desires to discuss the feelings and emotions associated with
the crime, because the thought reminds them of their own
vulnerability.
• Rather than discuss their grief and pain, victims may then
 Social consequences
• Persons in the victim’s immediate surroundings may
also have difficulty understanding how to react to the
victim.
• This, added to the other pressures, may reinforce the
victim’s feeling that no one understands his/her
situation, which may in turn lead to social isolation.
• Exposure to crime can damage an individual’s
fundamental sense of security.
• Studies of crime victims’ thoughts and feelings about
the future have found that many have serious worries
 Social consequences
• This feeling of insecurity does not affect only those who were
personally victims of crime, however.
• Local studies of security and victim surveys show that many
people worry about being victimised by crime, and feel
unsafe strolling about their own neighbourhoods after dark.
• Even though the number of people worried about crime far
exceeds the number actually victimised, this worry can often
have a larger impact on a person’s life than the actual crime.
• Information regarding the actual extent of crime in
combination with relevant crime prevention information is
something that can reduce a victim’s anxiety and fear of
 Social consequences
• Another social consequence of crime is the
stigmatisation, which may accompany the event.
• The victim’s social fate is almost predetermined
from the instant the crime occurs.
• Of primary importance is peace and quiet to
recuperate, with a patient person to listen and take
care of the practical measures necessary while the
victim rides out the storm.
• Instead, attention is focussed on the victim, his/her
rights may be violated, and he/she may be looked
 Social consequences
• The families of crime victims often exhibit
psychological symptoms similar to those of the
victim – they report feelings of worry and anxiety,
feel depressed and have reduced self-confidence.
• Providing these individuals with information
concerning the “normal” recovery process and an
understanding of what is going on within the victim
could both aid them through reducing their own
anxiety and also help the victim through their
increased insight into his/her situation.
 Practical Problems

• Crime almost always leads to practical problems for

the victim. Examples of these problems could be the
need to come into contact with the authorities,
which may itself involve the need for childcare and
transportation to the police station etc.
• The victim may have to contact his/her insurance
company to fi le a claim, or arrange for a glazier or
carpenter to come and repair a broken window or
damaged door.
• In some cases the crime involves physical injury,
which requires medical attention.
 Practical consequences
• The crime may result in costs, which necessitate
financial assistance. Practical problems may
also arise through the time-consuming process
of recovering or replacing stolen objects.
• International studies have found that crime
victims often require assistance with practical
matters such as contacting the authorities,
calling a locksmith, arranging temporary
lodgings or financial assistance.
 Link between victimisation and crime
• Victimization causes social problems. People who are
crime victims experience long-term negative
consequences, including problems with unemployment
and developing personal relationships, factors related to
criminality. Some young victims may run away from
home, taking to the streets and increasing their risk of
becoming a crime victim.
• Victimization causes stress and anger. Victimization may
produce anger, stress, and strain. Known offenders report
significant amounts of posttraumatic stress disorder as a
result of prior victimization, which may in part explain
 Link between victimisation and crime
• Victimization prompts revenge. Victims may
seek revenge against the people who harmed
them or whom they believe are at fault for
their problems. In some cultures, retaliation is
an expected and accepted response to
victimization.
 The nature of victimisation

• How many crime victims are there in Uganda, and

what are the trends and patterns in victimization?
• Victimization is not random but is a function of
personal and ecological factors.
• The stability of these patterns allows us to make
judgments about the nature of victimization; policies
can then be created in an effort to reduce the
victimization rate.
• Who are victims? Where does victimization take
place? What is the relationship between victims and
criminals?
 Victim characteristics
• Gender affects victimization risk. Except for the crimes of
rape and sexual assault, males are more likely than females
to be the victims of violent crime.
• Men are almost twice as likely as women to experience
robbery. Women, however, are six times more likely than
men to be victims of rape, domestic violence, and sexual
assault.
• Although males are more likely to be victimized than
females, the gender differences in the victimization rate
have narrowed significantly over time.
• One significant gender difference is that women are much
more likely to be victimized by someone they know or
with whom they live.
 Victim characteristics
• Age- Victim data reveal that young people face a
much greater victimization risk than do older
persons. Even the youngest kids are not immune.
• Elderly Victims- Although the elderly are less likely
to become crime victims than the young, they are
most often the victims of a narrow band of criminal
activities from which the young are more immune.
• Frauds and scams, purse snatching, pocket picking,
stealing checks from the mail, and committing
crimes in long-term care settings claim older than
younger victims.
 Victim characteristics
• The elderly are especially susceptible to fraud schemes
because they have insurance, pension plans, proceeds
from the sale of homes, and money from Social
Security and savings that make them attractive
financial targets.
• Because many elderly live by themselves and are
lonely, they remain more susceptible to telephone and
mail fraud.
• Unfortunately, once victimized, the elderly have more
limited opportunities either to recover their lost money
or to earn enough to replace what they have lost.
 Victim characteristics
• The association between age and victimization is
undoubtedly tied to lifestyle: adolescents often stay
out late at night, go to public places, and hang out
with other kids who have a high risk of criminal
involvement.
• Teens also face a high victimization risk because
they spend a great deal of time in the most
dangerous building in the community—the local
school.
 Victim characteristics
• Social Status- The poorest are also the most likely
victims of violent and property crime.
• Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent
crimes, the wealthy are more likely targets of
personal theft crimes such as pocket picking and
purse snatching.
• Perhaps the affluent—wearing more expensive
attire and driving better cars—attract the attention of
thieves.
 Victim characteristics
• Marital Status -Marital status also influences
victimization risk.
• Never-married males and females are victimized
more often than married people.
• Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization
risk.
• This association between marital status and
victimization is probably influenced by age, gender,
and lifestyle:
 Victim characteristics
• Adolescents and teens, who have the highest
victimization risk, are too young to have been
married.
• Young single people go out in public more often and
sometimes interact with high-risk peers, increasing
their exposure to victimization.
• Widows and widowers suffer much lower
victimization rates because they are older, interact
with older people, and are more likely to stay home
at night and to avoid public places.
 Repeat Victimization
• Does prior victimization enhance or reduce the
chances of future victimization?
• Individuals who have been crime victims have a
significantly higher chance of future victimization
than people who have not been victims.
• Households that have experienced victimization in
the past are the ones most likely to experience it
again in the future.
Characteristics that increase potential
for victimisation
• Target vulnerability-The victims’ physical weakness
or psychological distress renders them incapable of
resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy
targets.
• Target gratifiability- Some victims have some
quality, possession, skill, or attribute that an
offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or
manipulate. Having attractive possessions such as a
leather coat may make one vulnerable to predatory
crime.
 Characteristics continued
• Target antagonism- Some characteristics increase risk
because they arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive
impulses in potential offenders. Being gay for example,
may bring on undeserved attacks in the street; being
argumentative and alcoholic may provoke barroom
assaults.
• Repeat victimization may occur when the victim does not
take defensive action. For example, if an abusive husband
finds out that his battered wife will not call the police, he
repeatedly victimizes her; or if a hate crime is committed
and the police do not respond to reported offenses, the
perpetrators learn they have little to fear from the law.
 Characteristics continued
• Women who fight back and/or use self-protective
action during the first incident of sexual battering
reduce their likelihood of being a recurrent victim.
• Of course, not all victims are repeaters. Some take
defensive measures to lessen their chance of future
victimizations. Some may change their lifestyle, take
fewer risks, and cut back on associating with
dangerous people; once burnt, twice shy.
• Victims and Their criminals- Males are more likely to
be violently victimized by a stranger, and females are
more likely to be victimized by a friend, an
 Theories of victimisation or crime
susceptibility
• For many years, criminological theory focused on the
actions of the criminal offender; the role of the victim
was virtually ignored.
• A number of theories concerning crime and
criminality have been proposed through the years.
• Today a number of different theories attempt to
explain the causes of victimization.
• Some of these theories have focussed on victim
behaviour, while others have been based on the
individual characteristics and background of the
 Victim Precipitation Theory

• Early theories attempted to find causes of

victimisation in personal characteristics of the victim
or in the interaction between the victim and the
perpetrator.
• That many violent crimes were the result of a
superficial or deep interaction between the victim and
the perpetrator.
• The victim is not always a passive object. The
victim’s behaviour in interaction with the perpetrator
can be contributory to the criminal act itself.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• While theories of crime causation frequently focus on
the offender, some consider the role of the victim in
setting the stage leading up to the criminal event.
• Criminal victimization is a complex process involving
many parties such as the criminal, the victim, the justice
system, members of society among others.
• Victimologists recognize three ways in which victims
contribute to their own victimization.
• The first is victim facilitation, which can occur when
potential victims fail to take simple precautions against
being victimized.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• Facilitation of victimization may happen when home-
owners leave their doors unlocked, when drivers leave
keys in their cars, or when purses are left unattended in a
restaurant or public place.
• Victim facilitation can be distinguished from victim
provocation, in which the victim may be the initial
aggressor who has the tables turned on him or her and
ends up being injured or killed.
• Finally, victim initiation happens when the victim attracts
the offender’s attention through certain activities (i.e.,
hiking alone on an isolated mountain trail) or by visible
displays of wealth or other things of interest.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• Victim precipitation- refers to crimes and situations where
the victim, through their behaviour, can be seen as the
cause.
• The study of events leading up to a crime is crucial to any
understanding of victimisation.
• According to victim precipitation theory, some people may
actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to
their injury or death. Victim precipitation can be either
active or passive.
• Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively,
use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• Female rape victims often contribute to their attacks by
dressing provocatively or pursuing a relationship with the
rapist.
• Courts have continued to return not-guilty verdicts in rape
cases if a victim’s actions can in any way be construed as
consenting to sexual intimacy.
• Passive precipitation occurs when the victim exhibits some
personal characteristic that unknowingly either threatens or
encourages the attacker.
• Although the victim may never have met the attacker or
even know of his or her existence, the attacker feels
endangered and acts accordingly.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• In some instances, the crime can occur because of personal
conflict—for example, when two people compete over a job,
promotion, love interest, or some other scarce and coveted
commodity.
• A woman may become the target of domestic violence when
she increases her job status and her success results in a
backlash from a jealous spouse or partner.
• Passive precipitation may also occur when the victim belongs
to a group whose mere presence threatens the attacker’s
reputation, status, or economic well-being. For example, hate-
crime violence may be precipitated by immigrant group
members arriving in the community to compete for jobs and
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• Research indicates that passive precipitation is related to
power: if the target group can establish themselves
economically or gain political power in the community, their
vulnerability will diminish.
• They are still a potential threat, but they become too formidable
a target to attack; they are no longer passive precipitators. By
implication, economic power reduces victimization risk.
• Victim Impulsivity- Perhaps there is something about victims’
personality traits that incite attacks. A number of research
efforts have found that both male and female victims have an
impulsive personality that might render them rude and
intolerable, characteristics that might incite victimization.
 Victim Precipitation Theory
• People who are impulsive and lack self-control are
less likely to have a high tolerance for frustration
and a physical rather than mental orientation; they
are less likely to practice risk avoidance.
• It is possible that impulsive people are not only
antagonistic and therefore more likely to become
targets, but they also are risk takers who get
involved in dangerous situations and fail to take
precautions.
 Lifestyle Theory

• Theories of victimology, which developed in the late

1970s, moved the focus away from the role of victim
characteristics as a central cause of victimization and
examined the choices that people make that increase
their availability to offenders and make them easier
targets for crime.
• This theory attempts to explain variations in the risk of
becoming a victim of crimes where there is direct
contact between the victim and the perpetrator.
• The underlying assumption is that certain lifestyles
increase the likelihood of being in situations where the
 Lifestyle theory
• “Lifestyle” refers to a style of life, or the way a
person lives.
• Lifestyles are composed of repetitive, patterned,
regular, and recurrent events that people engage in on
an everyday basis.
• Because lifestyles are associated with exposure to
people, places, and times with varying risk of
victimization, they determine a person’s vulnerability
to criminal victimization.
• Simply put, certain lifestyles favor victimization
 Lifestyle theory
• Another assumption is that lifestyle is influenced by
an individual’s demographic and social
characteristics.
• The risk of being subjected to crime is thus a
function of characteristics such as sex, age, civil
status, occupation, ethnicity and social group –
characteristics, which influence an individual’s
choice of activities both at work and during free
time.
 Lifestyle theory
• Some criminologists believe people may become
crime victims because their lifestyle increases their
exposure to criminal offenders.
• Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as
associating with young men, going out in public
places late at night, and living in an urban area.
• Conversely, one’s chances of victimization can be
reduced by staying home at night, moving to a rural
area, staying out of public places, earning more
money, and getting married.
 Lifestyle theory
• The basis of lifestyle theory is that crime is not a
random occurrence but rather a function of the
victim’s lifestyle.
• For example, due to their lifestyle and demographic
makeup, college campuses contain large
concentrations of young women who may be at
greater risk for rape and other forms of sexual assault
than women in the general population.
• Single women who drink frequently and have a prior
history of being sexually assaulted are most likely to
 Lifestyle theory
• Lifestyle theory proposes that demographic variables,
including things such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and
influence lifestyles and hence determine victimization risk
through their effect on lifestyle. Someone working a late-
night shift in a crime-prone area, for example, is likely at
higher risk of victimization than someone who is asleep at
home.
• People who belong to groups that have an extremely risky
life—homeless, runaways, drug users—are at high risk for
victimization; the more time they are exposed to street
life, the greater their risk of becoming crime victims.
 Lifestyle theory
• Similarly, a person who routinely withdraws large
sums of cash from the same ATM machine on a
regular basis is more likely to be victimized than one
who conducts transactions at a teller’s window in a
bank, or who varies their routine— especially if they
frequently visit ATMs in poorly lit areas late at night.
• Some authors use date rape as another example of
crime associated with lifestyles, especially when
young women engage in high-frequency dating with
a relatively large number of men.
 Lifestyle theory
• A married lifestyle, they point out, is relatively safer,
even though domestic abuse and family violence are
not uncommon.
• Some groups of people—including the homeless,
runaways, sex tourists, and heavy drinkers or
alcoholics who visit public bars and nightclubs—
participate in very risky lifestyles.
• Likewise, unemployed youth who drop out of school
are more likely to associate with others who get them
into “trouble,” and may find themselves faced with
 Deviant Place Theory

• According to deviant place theory, the greater their

exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people
will become victims of crime and violence.
• Victims do not encourage crime, but are victim prone
because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime
areas where they have the greatest risk of coming into
contact with criminal offenders, irrespective of their
own behavior or lifestyle.
• The more often victims visit dangerous places, the
more likely they will be exposed to crime and violence.
 Deviant place theory
• Neighborhood crime levels, then, may be more
important for determining the chances of
victimization than individual characteristics.
• Consequently, there may be little reason for
residents in lower-class areas to alter their lifestyle
or take safety precautions because personal behavior
choices do not influence the likelihood of
victimization.
 Deviant place theory
• Deviant places are poor, densely populated, highly
transient neighborhoods in which commercial and
residential property exist side by side.
• The commercial property provides criminals with
easy targets for theft crimes, such as shoplifting and
larceny.
• Successful people stay out of these stigmatized areas;
they are homes for “demoralized kinds of people”
who are easy targets for crime: the homeless, the
addicted, the retarded, and the elderly poor.
 Deviant place theory
• People who live in more affluent areas and take
safety precautions significantly lower their chances
of becoming crime victims
• The effect of safety precautions is less pronounced
in poor areas.
• Residents of poor areas have a much greater risk of
becoming victims because they live near many
motivated offenders
• To protect themselves, they have to try harder to be
safe than the more affluent.
 Deviant place theory
• Deviant places theory is spatially oriented. It
suggests that victimization occurs most frequently
in socially disorganized areas and that people
become victims as a result of their exposure to such
areas—by living there, transiting through them, or
by visiting them.
• The theory focuses primarily on the geographically
determined risk of coming into contact with an
offender, irrespective of lifestyle, behavior, or
personal characteristics.
 Routine activities theory
• The routine activity theory was formulated at about the same
time as the lifestyle theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979).
• Routine activities theory was first articulated in a series of
papers by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson. They
concluded that the volume and distribution of predatory
crime (violent crimes against a person and crimes in which
an offender attempts to steal an object directly) are closely
related to the interaction of three variables that reflect the
routine activities of the typical American lifestyle.

• According to this theory, three factors must interact for a

crime to take place.
 Routine activities theory
• Cohen and Felson feel that the likelihood that a
crime is committed is a function of these three
factors converging at a given time and place.
• This convergence is affected, in turn, by how daily
routines are organised.
• Some individuals routinely find themselves in
situations where all three factors are present, while
others have daily routines which rarely place them
in these situations.
 Routine activities theory
• a) The availability of suitable targets, such as
homes containing easily salable goods
• b) The absence of capable guardians, such as
police, home owners, neighbours, friends, and
relatives
• c) The presence of motivated offenders, such as a
large number of unemployed teenagers
 Routine activities theory
• The presence of these components increases the likelihood that
a predatory crime will take place.
• Targets are more likely to be victimized if they are poorly
guarded and exposed to a large group of motivated offenders,
such as teenage boys.
• As targets increase in value and availability, so too should
crime rates.
• Conversely, as the resale value of formerly pricey goods such
as iPods and cell phones declines, so too should burglary rates.
• Increasing the number of motivated offenders and placing
them in close proximity to valuable goods will increase
victimization levels.
 Routine activities theory
• Young women who drink to excess in bars and flat houses may
elevate their risk of date rape because (a) they are perceived as easy
targets, and (b) their attackers can rationalize the attack because
they view intoxication as a sign of immorality (“She’s loose, so I
didn’t think she’d care”).
• Conversely, people can reduce their chances of victimization if they
adopt a lifestyle that limits their exposure to danger: by getting
married, having children, and moving to a small town.
• Guardianship- Even the most motivated offenders may ignore
valuable targets if they are well guarded.
• Despite containing valuable commodities, private homes and/or
public businesses may be considered off-limits by seasoned
criminals if they are well protected by capable guardians and
 Routine activities theory
• Criminals are also aware of police guardianship.
• In order to convince them that crime does not pay, more cops can be put
on the street.
• Proactive, aggressive law enforcement officers who quickly get to the
scene of the crime help deter criminal activities.
• Hot Spots Motivated people—such as teenage males, drug users, and
unemployed adults—are the ones most likely to commit crime. If they
congregate in a particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for
crime and violence. People who live in these hot spots elevate their
chances of victimization.
• It is not surprising that people who (a) live in high-crime areas and (b)
go out late at night (c) carrying valuables such as an expensive watch
and (d) engage in risky behavior such as drinking alcohol, (e) without
friends or family to watch or help them, have a significant chance of
 Routine activities theory
• Cohen and Felson assume that there will always be a
substantial number of motivated offenders, but that suitable
targets (either vulnerable people or unattended valuables)
and capable guardians (watchful friends and neighbours,
the police, and security personnel) vary with the place and
over time.
• Social activities engaged in by potential victims who are
suitable targets for robbery contribute substantially to
criminal opportunities when they are undertaken in the
absence of a capable guardian—as when someone wearing
valuable jewellery fails to consider the potential threat of
being out in public unaccompanied by others.
 Caring for the victim
• Helping these victims adjust and improve their coping
techniques can be essential to their recovery.
• Law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional
and human service systems have come to realize that
due process and human rights exist for both the
defendant and the victim of criminal behavior.
• Recommendations include providing witnesses and
victims with protection from intimidation, requiring
restitution in criminal cases, developing guidelines for
fair treatment of crime victims and witnesses, and
 Caring for the victim
• Victim Compensation -One of the primary goals of
victim advocates has been to lobby for legislation
creating crime victim compensation programs. As a
result of such legislation, the victim ordinarily
receives compensation from the state to pay for
damages associated with the crime.
• Compensation may be made for medical bills, loss
of wages, loss of future earnings, and counselling.
In the case of death, the victim’s survivors can
receive burial expenses and aid for loss of support.
 Caring for victims
• Victim Advocates- Ensuring victims’ rights can
involve an eclectic group of advocacy groups, some
independent, others government sponsored, and some
self-help. Advocates can be especially helpful when
victims need to interact with the agencies of justice.
• They can help victims make statements during
sentencing hearings as well as probation and parole
revocation procedures. Victim advocates can also
interact with news media, making sure that reporting
is accurate and that victim privacy is not violated.
 Caring for the victim
• Court advocates prepare victims and witnesses by
explaining court procedures: how to be a witness,
how bail works, and what to do if the defendant
makes a threat. Lack of such knowledge can cause
confusion and fear, making some victims reluctant
to testify in court procedures.
• Many victim programs also provide transportation
to and from court, and advocates may remain in the
courtroom during hearings to explain procedures
and provide support.
 Caring for the victim
• Court escorts are particularly important for elderly
and disabled victims, victims of child abuse and
assault, and victims who have been intimidated by
friends or relatives of the defendant.
• These types of services may be having a positive
effect since recent research shows that victims may
now be less traumatized by a court hearing than
previously believed.
 Caring for victims
• Victim Counselling- Numerous programs provide
counselling and psychological support to help
victims recover from the long-term trauma
associated with a violent victimization.
• Clients are commonly referred to the local network
of public and private social service agencies that can
provide emergency and long-term assistance with
transportation, medical care, shelter, food, and
clothing.
 Caring for the victim
• In addition, more than half of victim programs
provide crisis intervention to victims, many of
whom feel isolated, vulnerable, and in need of
immediate services. Some programs counsel at their
offices, and others visit victims’ homes, the crime
scene, or a hospital.
• Helping victims adjust is often a difficult process,
and recent research has found little evidence that
counselling efforts are as successful as previously
hoped.
 Caring for the victim
• Crisis Intervention- Most victim programs refer victims
to specific services to help them recover from their
ordeal.
• Clients are commonly referred to the local network of
public and private social service agencies that provide
emergency and long-term assistance with transportation,
medical care, shelter, food, and clothing.
• In addition, more than half of all victim programs
provide crisis intervention for victims who feel isolated,
vulnerable, and in need of immediate services.
 Caring for the victim
• Some programs counsel at their offices; others visit
victims in their homes, at the crime scene, or in the
hospital.
• Victim–Offender Reconciliation Programs- Victim–
offender reconciliation programs (VORPs) use
mediators to facilitate face-to-face encounters
between victims and their attackers.
• The aim is to engage in direct negotiations that lead
to restitution agreements and, possibly,
reconciliation between the two parties involved.
 Caring for the victim
• Reconciliation programs are based on the concept of
restorative justice, which rejects punitive
correctional measures in favor of viewing crimes of
violence and theft as interpersonal conflicts that
need to be settled in the community through non-
coercive means.