WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT 7 (10EC81)

Wireless Modulation Techniques and Hardware

Overvie
w
• Characteristics of Air interface

• Path loss models

• Wireless communication coding

techniques

• Digital modulation techniques

• UWB radio techniques

• Diversity techniques

• Typical GSM hardware

Transmission Characteristics of Wire line and Fiber
Systems
Wirelin communicatio Refer to telecommunicati
infrastructure
e n: s fixed on

Different technologies are used to deliver the desired signal

from one point to another point depending upon:
• Distance
• Form of information (Analog or Digital)
• Required data transmission rate
• Environment condition

Transmission lines (TL): Fig: Coaxial cable

A transmission line is a cable designed
carr of radio frequency. They are used to guide
specialized to a signal from
to
y point
point
as efficiently as
possible.
1. Conductor based TL
2. Fiber optic cables
Conductor based transmission line:

At lower frequencies (extremely long wavelengths):

Current flows within the conductor and is not prone to radiate
away from TL.

At higher frequencies:
The current flow take place near the conductor surface (skin
effect)

Types of TLs:
• Twisted pairs
- Unshielded or Shielded (UTP and STP)
• LAN category cable
• Coaxial cable

In all the three cases, the signal attenuation increases

with frequency
Characteristics of TL to be considered:
• Bandwidth
• Susceptibility to noise
• Frequency response

In transmission lines, noise can enter at termination points,

splices or connectors. To compensate this various coding
schemes and transmission protocols have been developed.

Fiber optic cables:

• Potential for unlimited bandwidth
• Not susceptible to electromagnetic interference
(EMI)
• They do not have any noise problems
• Bit error rate (BER) is extremely low backbon
• Suitable
telecommunication
for high capacity
networks(GBPS and e
TBPS)
Unfortunately, wireline cables and fiber – optic cables cannot
be used
for radio channel.
Characteristics of the air interface

Radio wave propagation and propagation models

Ground waves:
• EM waves below 2 MHZ
• They are launched by vertical antennas
• These waves tend to follow the curvature of the earth
• They lose the strength rapidly as they travel away from
antenna

Sky waves:
• Frequencies between 2 to 30 MHz
• They bounce off of ionospheric layers
• They propagate completely around the earth through
multiple
reflections or “hops” between the ground and
ionosphere

Straight waves or “Rays”

• Above 30MHz
Antenna
Size:
• Antenna size is inversely proportional to frequency
• The higher the frequency of operation, the smaller the
antenna structure

Wave propagation effects at UHF and above

All of the world’s mobile wireless systems use UHF (300 – 3000

MHz) Following are the three primary propagation effects.

1. Reflection
2. Scattering
3. Diffraction
Reflection:

Reflection is the change in direction of a EM wave at an

interface between two different media so that the wave returns
into the medium from which it originated

How much of the signal power is reflected depends on, the

surface roughness, frequency of the incident wave and other
variables.
Scatterin
g
Scatterin is a physica proces wher some
g radiation, general
of are forced to deviate
l from
s a straight
e trajectory
forms by
orone
more paths and the signal is scattered in many
directions simultaneously. different

Scattering occurs when the signal is incident upon a rough

surface or obstacles.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the effect that causes the EM waves to appear to

bend
around corners.

Diffraction occures when the signal is incident upon a sharp

corner e.g., the edge of a building rooftop.
Fig: Typical Outdoor propagation
case
Primary Signal: The signal that tend to follow the line of sight
(LOS)

There may be several to many other secondary,

tertiary, or even higher order reflections.

All the signals arriving at the mobile add together, with the
strongest
signal creating composite received signal.

Common term used: Multipath

Path Loss Model for Various Coverage areas
Fig: Two ray
model
Wireless Telecommunication Coding Techniques

Why Coding techniques..?

To compensate for the problems that encountered during use of
a mobile radio link.

Where they are implemented..?

The coding techniques are implemented at the transmitter to
increase the transmitted signal’s immunity to channel noise
and other impairments like frequency fading and multipath
spread.

Error Detection and Correction Coding

In wire line systems:

Errors occurs at one bit at a time – Single bit error
In wireless systems: Errors occurs in bursts

Error Control Coding (ECC):

The technique that codes the transmitted bits to control the
overall bit error rate.
In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has changed.

A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have
changed
Block codes:

Block codes are used to determine whether

an error has occurred during data transmission.

Forward Error Correction (FEC) Codes: The schemes

that use
block codes to correct errors

Block codes operate on a block of bits.

Using a preset algorithm, a group of bits are taken and a coded

part is added to make a larger block. This block is checked at
the receiver.

The receiver then makes a decision about the validity of the

received
sequence.

Block codes are referred to as (n, k) codes. A block of k

In block coding, message is divided into blocks, each of ‘k’ bits,
called
datawords.

We add ‘ r ’ redundant bits to each block to make the length n

= k + r.
The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

The code takes k information bits and computes (n-k) parity

bits
from the code generator matrix.

This code makes use of single parity bit.

Example: To transmit a message over the control channel, GSM

takes a block of 184 bits and adds 40 parity check bits to
generate a 224 bit codeword.

Disadvantage:

Using single parity bit, only a single error can be detected.

Convolutional Codes

Introduction
 Convolutio
n:
1. A coil or twist, or a state of being coiled or
twisted
2. A thing i.e., complex and difficult to follow rando
3. A method of determinationof the sum of m
two variables by summation
 Convolutional code:
1. Type of error correcting code in which each k-bit
information symbol to be encoded is transformed into
n-bit symbol.
2. An error correcting code that processes incoming bits
serially rather in large blocks.
 Why convolutional codes?
 In block codes, buffering should be done before
generating the code word.
 In some applications, message bits come in serially
rather than
the blocks, where buffering is undesirable.
 Useful for real-time applications because they
can be continuously encoded and decoded
 We can represent convolutional codes as
generators, block
diagrams, state diagrams, and trellis diagrams

 Convolution codes are generated using

‘convolutional encoder’

 Why the name convolutional encoder?

 It generates redundant bits by using modulo-2
convolutions, hence the name.
Convolutional k (n,k) n
Encoder : input, n bits are output
 k bits are bits encoder bits

 k & n are very small (usually k=1-3,

n=2-6)
 Code rate Rc=k/n ; 0<Rc<1
 At each time k bits enter the encoder, content of the
shift register (consists of K stages) are shifted to
the right by k memory elements
After the k bits have entered shift register, the n
adders add the
contents of memory elements.
 Addition is done using modulo-2 addition
procedure 0+0 = 0, 0+1 = 1, 1+0 = 1, 1+1
= 0;
 The parameter K is called the "constraint
length" of convolutional code.
 Hence, a convolutional code is specified by
General block diagram of Convolutional
Encoder
Examples of Convolutional
Encoders
 For k=1, n=2, K=3

 For k=2, n=3,

K=2
A RATE ½ CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODER

Message sequence: m
(101) Tim Outpu
Tim Outpu
e e t
t
u1 u1
u1 u 2 u1 u2
t
t1 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0
0 u
2 0 u
2

u1 u1
u1 u2 u1 u2
t t
3 1 0 0 0 4 0 1 1 0
1 u
2 0 u
2
A RATE ½ CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODER (CONTINUED…)

Tim Outpu Tim Outpu

e t e t
u1 u1
u1 u 2 u1 u2
t t
5 0 0 1 1 6 0 0 0 0
1 u
2 0 u
2

m Encoder U  (11 10 00 10 11)

(101)

Example: n = 2, k = 1, K = 3, L = 3 input bits.

Output = n(L + K -1) = 2*(3 + 3 – 1) = 10
output bits
Turbo
Encoders
Turbo codes are the modified form of combined convolutional
encoders that can be used to create new class of enhanced
error correction codes.

These codes belongs to a class of high – performance Forward

Error Correction (FEC) codes.

These are the first practical codes and they were

developed in 1993.

A typical turbo encoder is constructed from two

systematic
convolutional encoder connected in parallel.

The output bit streams of the two convolutional encoders are

multiplexed together and repeated to form the final code
symbols.

Eg: For cdma2000, rate ½, 1/3, ¼ and 1/5 turbo encoders are
employed.
The first class of cod was the concatenate
turbo e parallel d
convolutional code
(PCCC). patented in US 5,446,74
(https:// Patent 7
[Link]/patents/US5446747).
Turbo Codes were first
Speech
Coding
Speech coding is a process dat compressio of audi
of a n digital o
signals containing speech.
The speech coders used for both GSM and CDMA wireless
systems take 20-msec segments of previously encoded
speech or raw speech.

Types of speech coders:

1. Waveform coders: Eg: Pulse code modulation
2. Vocoders

For GSM wireless systems, speech may be transmitted at full

rate, half rate, or enhanced full rate.
Full-rate speech coder: 260 bits (33 bytes) every 20 msec (13
kbps)
Half-rate speech coder: Two half packets of 228 bits
228 bits + 228 bits = 456 bits every 20 msec
kbps For 9.6 kbps: 172 bits are provided every 20
.For CDMA
msec
systems, the speech encoders operate at 9.6 kbps or
14.4 For 14.4 kbps: 268 bits every 20 msec
Block Interleaving

Block interleaving is a technique used by the mobile wireless

systems to overcome the effects of bit errors introduced during
the transmission of a frame.

Data written to and read from memory in different orders.

Example: Lets consider, the error control code used by the

system may be able to correct 1 bit error out of a block of 8
bits, i.e., it is not able to correct a burst of say 6 errors within
the 8-bit block.

If the bits of the block are interleaved with the bits from the
other blocks, then, the burst of 6 errors can be spread out over
6 other blocks.

Thus ECC can correct each of the single bit errors in each of the
single blocks.
A burst error that may occur is spread out over a number of
blocks, making error correction possible.

Data bits and corresponding check bits are interspersed with

bits from other blocks
At receiver, data are de-interleaved to recover original order
Digital Modulation Techniques

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a

method of
encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies.

OFDM Principle

The available bandwidth W is divided into a number Nc of sub-

bands,
commonly called sub-carriers, each of width,
Condition supposed to be satisfied:
The frequency spacing between each carrier should be
orthogonal to each other.

Reason for the orthogonality: Orthogonal signals will

not
interfere with each other at a receiver.
Advantages:

1. High efficienc as to modulatio

spectral y compared other n
schemes.
2. Can easily adapt to severe channel
conditions.
3. Robust against narrow-band co-channel
interference.
fadin
4. Robust against inter-symbol interference (ISI) g
and
5. caused
Efficientby
implementation using Fast Fourier Transform
multi-path propagation.
(FFT).

6. Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors.

Fig: Spectrum of an OFDM
signal.
Spread Spectrum Modulation
Techniques
As the name “spread spectrum” suggests, this technique
supports spreading the bandwidth to transmit the data.

Spread spectrum technique employ a transmission bandwidth

that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum
required signal bandwidth.

This technique is bandwidth inefficient for a single

user;
but the
bandwidth
The without
advantage significantly
is, many interfering with one another.
users can same
simultaneously use
The spreading is done by Pseudo Noise Code (PN Code), which
is a
binary sequence that appears to be random.

Pseudo Noise Code (PN Code):

It is defined as a series of bits (1’s and 0’s) that seems to be
random but repeat itself after ‘n’ numbers where ‘n’ represents
length of PN code.
Definition:

Spread spectrum is a type of modulation in which the

modulated signal bandwidth is much greater than the
message signal bandwidth.
The spreading of the message signal spectrum is done by a
spreading code called Pseudo Noise Code (PN Code)
which is independent of the message signal.

Spread spectrum modulation was originally developed for

military
applications.

It was used in the battle ground and in the hostile territories

where the enemy always tries to intrude into the
communication system of the friendly forces to steal
information and to jam the systems.
Applications and advantages of spread spectrum
systems:

• To prevent eavesdropping.
• To prevent the jamming of signals.
• Improved interference rejection
• CDMA applications
• Secure communication
• High resolution ranging
• Anti-jam capability
• Increased capacity and spectral efficiency in some mobile-
cellular personal communication system applications
• Lower cost of implementation
• Readily available IC components
Model of a Spread-Spectrum Digital Communication
System
Spread spectrum systems have been classified by their
architecture
and modulation concepts.
The most commonly employed SS techniques are the
following:

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 Slow Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
 Fast Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
• Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (TH/SS)
• Hybrid spread spectrum methods (HSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
FHSS was invented by a movie star Hedy Lamarr.

Frequency hopping involves a periodic change of transmission

frequency during the transmission.

FHSS consists of a system that changes

the center frequency of transmission on a periodic
basis in a pseudorandom sequence.

The hopping sequence is designed in such a

fashion that, various
hopping frequencies are statistically independent of one another.

For the system to work, both the transmitter and receiver must
have prior knowledge of hopping sequence.

The set of possible carrier frequency is called the hopset.

Definition: The type of spread spectrum in which carrier hops

randomly from one frequency to another is called Frequency Hop
Frequency hoping are classified as
follows:
1. Slow Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Slow Frequency Hopping occurs if one or more symbols
are
transmitted in the time interval between frequency hops.

If the hopping (chipping) rate is higher than the bit rate then
it is called fast frequency hopping spread spectrum system
(FF-HSS).

2. Fast Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Fast Frequency Hopping occurs if there is more than one
frequency hop during each transmitted symbol.

If the hopping (chipping) rate is lesser than the bit rate then it
is called slow frequency system (SF-HSS).
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

A DSSS system spreads the baseband data by directly

multiplying the baseband data with a pseudo-noise sequence
that is produced by a pseudo noise code generators.

The same spreading code (PN code) is applied at the received

signal to perform demodulation.

Both the transmitter and the receiver must have the

knowledge of
the spreading code used, for the proper working of DSSS
system.
Ultra – Wideband Radio Technology

It is a emerging technology and extremely suits

for short range application space.

This technology employs effective sharing of radio

frequency
spectrum instead of looking for new frequency bands for new
services.

Applications:
• Ground penetrating radar
• Vehicular radar
• Measurement and positioning systems
• Data communications

Data rates supported by UWB systems:

1. Over short distances (1 – 10 meters) – 100 to 500 mbps
2. Larger distances (> 10 meters) – 3.1 to 10.6 GHz
Diversity Techniques
 RAKE Receiver

Explain RAKE receiver for a diversity technique, with

a block diagram.
December 2011,
10Marks
A RAKE receiver is a specialized radio receiver designed to
counter the effects of multipath fading and is used in CDMA
systems.

It combines multipath components, which are time delayed

versions of the original signal transmission.

The RAKE receiver was originally designed by Price and Green

and is patented in the US in 1956. The first practical
implementations of the receiver was designed in 1970.

The RAKE receiver is so named because it reminds the function

Fig: RAKE receiver block
diagram
A RAKE receiver utilizes multiple correlators (also called “sub-
receivers” or “fingers”) to separately detect M strongest
multipath components.

Each correlator detects a time-shifted version of the original

CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlators to
a portion of the signal, which is delayed from the other fingers.

Let M be the no. of correlators used in CDMA

receiver Let Z1, Z2,…,ZM be the outputs of the M
correlators Let m be the multipath
component
Let α1, α2, α3,…, αM be the weighted components

Then,
the maximum combined output Z’ is given
by
In a RAKE receiver, if the output from one correlator is corrupted
by fading, the others may not be. The corrupted signals are
discarded and the bit decisions are done using decision device.

Applications
• Theyare common in a wide variety of CDMA and W-
CDMA radio devices such as mobile phones and wireless
LAN equipment.
• Used in radio astronomy
- Studying celestial objects at radio frequencies
• Used in radio telescopes
 Space
Diversity
It’s a typical technique to improve mobile wireless system
performance

Space diversity improves mobile wireless system performance in

the form of additional receiving antennas located at the base
station.

Problem associated:Small size of the antenna in relation to

a wavelength of the radio frequency employed.

Remedial schemes:
MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) antennas, smart antennas
etc.

In theory, the paths taken by the reverse signal to arrive at

each
antenna will not be affected equally by multipath fading or
spread.
The antennas feed multiple with the receive
receivers, signal being used by the strongest d
system.
Polarization diversity is used to counter the change in EM signal
polarization that can be induced by the environment during
reflection, scattering, and so on.
 Smart Antennas

Smart antennas are used in 3G applications

This technique improves system performance by making use of

phased array or “beam steering” antenna systems.

Smart antennas uses narrow pencil beam patterns to

communicate with a subset of the active users within a cell.

Once a mobile subscriber has been located by the system, a

narrow radio beam is pointed in the user’s direction through the
use of sophisticated antenna technology.

Smart antennas eliminates most multipath signals their by

reduces
amount of interference received.

As the mobile user moves about the coverage area, the smart
antenna will track the mobile’s motion.
Fig: Depiction of 3G smart antenna
system
 Single Antenna Interference Cancellation (SAIC)

Single antenna interference cancellation (SAIC) is a newly

developed technique that can be used to improve the downlink
performance of a GSM system.

To get the maximum performance from this technology, the GSM

system should be synchronous (i.e., tied to the timing of the GPS
system )

SAIC uses two algorithms to cancel the interference

 Joint detection (JD) cancellation
 Blind interference cancellation (BIC)

In both the cases , the systems tend to suppress the interference

that would normally increase the bit error rate of the system.
Thank
You