stomach
STIMULATORY EVENTS INHIBITORY EVENTS
GASTRO INTESTINAL
HORMONES
GASTROINTESTINAL (GI)
HORMONES :
are chemical messengers that
regulate
intestinal and pancreatic function,
Gastrin–cholecystokinin family:
gastrin and cholecystokinin.
Secretin family:
vasoactive intestinal
Secretin
peptide and gastric inhibitory peptide
.
Somatostatin family:
Motilin family.
Substance P.
The GI hormones that regulate:
Gut mucosal growth
positively or negatively include
Gastrin,
CCK,
Secretin,
Somatostatin,
Ghrelin,
Bombesin
and Gastrin-
Releasing Peptide (GRP).
Regulation of secretion ,
Motility,
Absorption,
Digestion, and
Cell proliferation.
These hormones are secreted by
endocrine cells, which are widely distributed
throughout the GI mucosa and pancreas.
Gastrointestinal hormones are produced by
specialized ENTEROENDOCRINE cells that
are located in the epithelial layer
throughout the whole gastrointestinal
tract 1). All together, these cells form the
bigger endocrine organ of the body and
produce the largest number of hormones 2)
Enteroendocrine cells are
characterized as being either open-
or closed-type
THE FIVE GASTROINTESTINAL
HORMONES THAT QUALIFY AS
ENDOCRINES ARE:
GASTRIN,
CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK),
SECRETIN,
GLUCOSE-
DEPENDENT INSULINOTROPIC
PEPTIDE (GIP),
AND MOTILIN.
NEUROCRINE HORMONES GET SECRETED
BY POSTGANGLIONIC NON-CHOLINERGIC
NEURONS OF THE ENTERIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM.
THREE NEUROCRINE HORMONES WITH
SIGNIFICANT PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONS IN
THE GUT ARE:
VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL PEPTIDE (VIP),
GASTRIN RELEASE
PEPTIDE (GRP),
AND ENKEPHALINS 4).
G CELLS SECRETE GASTRIN IN THE ANTRUM OF
THE STOMACH AND THE DUODENUM
IN RESPONSE TO THE PRESENCE
OF BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS OF PROTEIN
DIGESTION (SUCH AS AMINO ACIDS AND
SMALL PEPTIDES),
DISTENTION BY FOOD,
AND VAGAL NERVE STIMULATION VIA
GRP. MORE SPECIFICALLY,
PHENYLALANINE AND TRYPTOPHAN ARE THE
MOST POTENT STIMULATORS OF GASTRIN
SECRETION AMONG THE PROTEIN DIGESTION
PRODUCTS.
THE VAGAL NERVE STIMULATION OF
GASTRIN SECRETION IS UNIQUE
BECAUSE GASTRIN AND
MOTILIN ARE THE ONLY HORMONES RELEASED
DIRECTLY BY NEURAL STIMULATION.
GASTRIN
STIMULATES H+ (ACID) SECRETION BY
PARIETAL CELLS IN THE STOMACH
TROPHIC (GROWTH) EFFECTS ON THE
MUCOSA OF THE SMALL INTESTINE,
COLON, AND STOMACH
INHIBITS THE ACTIONS OF SECRETIN AND
GLUCOSE-DEPENDENT INSULINOTROPIC
PEPTIDE (GIP)
INHIBITED BY H+
CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK)
CONTRACTION OF THE GALLBLADDER WITH
SIMULTANEOUS RELAXATION OF THE
SPHINCTER OF ODDI
INHIBITS GASTRIC EMPTYING
STIMULATES SECRETION OF PANCREATIC
ENZYMES: LIPASES, AMYLASE,
AND PROTEASES
SECRETION OF BICARBONATE FROM THE
PANCREAS
TROPHIC EFFECTS ON THE EXOCRINE
PANCREAS AND GALLBLADDER
SECRETIN
INHIBITS
GASTRIN,
H+ SECRETION,
AND GROWTH OF
STOMACH MUCOSA
STIMULATES
BILIARY SECRETION OF BICARBONATE AND
FLUID
SECRETION OF BICARBONATE FROM THE
PANCREAS
TROPHIC
EFFECT ON THE EXOCRINE PANCREAS
GLUCOSE-DEPENDENT INSULINOTROPIC
PEPTIDE (GIP)
STIMULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION
INDUCES SATIETY
IN LARGE DOSES, DECREASES GASTRIC ACID
SECRETION
IN LARGE DOSES, DECREASES THE MOTOR
ACTIVITY OF THE STOMACH AND THEREFORE
SLOWS GASTRIC EMPTYING WHEN THE UPPER
SMALL INTESTINE IS ALREADY FULL OF FOOD
PRODUCTS.
STIMULATES THE ACTIVITY OF LIPOPROTEIN
LIPASE IN ADIPOCYTES
PROTECTS BETA-CELLS OF THE PANCREAS
FROM DESTRUCTION BY APOPTOSIS
GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 (GLP-
1)
DECREASES GASTRIC EMPTYING
INDUCES SATIETY
INCREASES SENSITIVITY OF
PANCREATIC BETA-CELLS TO
GLUCOSE.
Motilin
Increases gastrointestinal motility by
stimulating the “migrating motility” or
“myoelectric complex” that moves through the
fasting stomach and small intestines every 90
minutes. This cyclical release and action get
inhibited by the ingestion of food. Not much is
known about this peptide, except for this
essential function.
PEPTIDE TYROSINE-TYROSINE (PYY)
IT INHIBITS GASTRIC MOTILITY AND
INCREASES WATER IS PART OF THE
FEEDBACK MECHANISM KNOWN AS THE
“ILEAL BREAK,” WHICH IS ELICITED BY THE
PRESENCE OF UNABSORBED DIETARY
COMPONENTS IN THE DISTAL
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND IS AIMED
TO SLOW PROXIMAL GASTROINTESTINAL
MOTILITY IN ORDER TO FACILITATE
EFFICIENT DIGESTION AND UPTAKE OF
NUTRIENTS .
OXYNTOMODULIN
INHIBITS GASTRIC SECRETION,
PANCREATIC EXOCRINE SECRETION,
AND GASTRIC EMPTYING .
INHIBITS FOOD INTAKE, IN PART, DUE
TO THE SUPPRESSION OF GHRELIN LEVELS .
PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE (PP)
PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE (PP) IS RELEASED
AFTER MEALS,
IN AN AMOUNT PROPORTIONAL TO THE
CALORIES INGESTED,
AND IN RESPONSE TO
HYPOGLYCEMIA, EXERCISE,
GASTRIC DISTENSION,
AND ELEVATIONS IN GASTRIN,
SECRETIN,
MOTILIN .
SOMATOSTATIN
WELL KNOWN FOR ITS INHIBITORY
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS IN MULTIPLE TARGETS,
SOMATOSTATIN
CAN FUNCTION VIA
ENDOCRINE,
PARACRINE,
OR NEUROCRINE
PATHWAYS.
SOMATOSTATIN INHIBITS THE SECRETION OF
SOME
GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES (CCK, GHRELIN,
GLP-1, GIP, SECRETIN),
GASTRIC EMPTYING,
AND GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY
WHILE ALSO INHIBITING
INSULIN AND GLUCAGON SECRETION FROM THE
PANCREAS .
Ghrelin
Ghrelin levels display a surge
before meals,
decline after meals,
and then increase gradually until the next
preprandial peak .
In addition, ghrelin levels are elevated in energy
deficit conditions, such as
fasting, malnutrition,
anorexia nervosa,
or cachexia .
increase food intake .
ghrelin seems also relevant for
the long-term control of energy intake .
Ghrelin may also
contribute to glycemic control and, to
a lesser extent, to the regulation of the
gastrointestinal motility .
GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES MANAGE A
DIVERSE SET OF ACTIONS IN THE BODY
INCLUDING:
CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION OF
SMOOTH MUSCLE WALL AND SPHINCTERS
SECRETION OF ENZYMES FOR DIGESTION
SECRETION OF FLUID AND ELECTROLYTES
TROPHIC (GROWTH) EFFECTS ON TISSUES OF
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
REGULATING SECRETION OF OTHER
GASTROINTESTINAL PEPTIDES (I.E.,
SOMATOSTATIN INHIBITS SECRETION OF ALL
GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES)
