UNIT I : MATERIALS FOR INTERIOR ESSENTIALS

PREPARED BY – AR. SNEHAL CHAUDHARI

INDEX

 Wood, wood derivatives

 Finishing materials like laminates, veneers, plastics and
metal sheets.
 Paints and varnishes.
 Hardware required for application to interior and
furniture elements.
WOOD, WOOD DERIVATIVES USED FOR
INTERIOR APPLICATION.
 Introduction

• Wood is raw vegetable material. It comes from the trunk of trees and bushes.
• Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and
branches of a tree.
• It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material.

• Wood as a building material falls in two major classes i,e, natural and man-made.
• With the advances in science and technology, wood in its natural form as timber is
being rapidly replaced by composite wood materials in which natural wood is just
a basic ingredient of a matrix.
• The latter are found to be more useful and adaptable as they may be treated
chemically, thermally or otherwise as per requirements.
 Advantages of Wood

• It is easily available (this won’t be true after some years).Easy to

transport and handle.

• Has more thermal insulation, sound absorption and electrical

resistance as compared to steel and concrete.

• It is the ideal material to be used in sea water.

• Wood is a good absorber of shocks and so is suitable for

construction work in hilly areas which are more prone to
earthquakes.

• Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and alterations to

wood-work can also be done easily.

• Wood is very widely used in buildings as doors, windows, frames,

temporary partition walls, etc. And in roof trusses and ceilings
apart from formworks.
 PROPERTIES OF WOOD HOW TO PROCESS WOOD……..
Physical properties of wood
The process starts with the extraction of
• the timber from the forest and ends with
Hardness
• the production of plank.
Density
• Electrical insulation
• The Stages of this process are:
Thermal insulation
• Porosity
• 1) Cutting
Mechanical resistance
• 2) Transport
Color & grain
3) Removing the Bark
4) Sawing
5) Drying
Ecological properties of wood
6) Planning
• Renewable
• Biodegradable
• recyclable
Stage 1: Stage 2:

Cutting Transport
Stage 3: Stage 4:

Removing the Bark Sawing

Stage 5: Stage 6:

Drying Planning
Market Forms of
Wood/Timber:

1. Battens: Timber pieces whose

breadth and thickness do not
exceed 50 mm.

2. Baulk: Roughly squared timber

piece, it is obtained by removing
bark and Sapwood.

3. Board: A plank with parallel sides.

Its thickness is less than 50mm
and width exceeds 150mm.

4. Log: Trunk of tree obtained after

removal of branches.
Market Forms of Wood/Timber:

5. Plank: Timber pieces with parallel

sides. Thickness less than 50mm
and width exceeds 50mm.

6. Pole: Sound long log of wood, dia

does not exceed 200mm,
also known as spar.

7. Quartering: Square piece of timber,

the length of side being 50mm to
150mm.
TYPES OF WOOD

When it comes to choosing the right type of wood for your interior application,
there are a variety of options available.

Some popular choices include oak, maple, cherry, and walnut. Each type of wood
has its own unique properties that make it suitable for different settings.

For example, oak is known for its durability and strength, making it a great choice
for high-traffic areas such as flooring or staircases.

Maple, on the other hand, is prized for its light color and fine grain, making it a
popular choice for furniture and cabinetry.

Cherry wood is known for its rich, warm tones and is often used for decorative
accents or trim work.

Walnut is another popular choice for furniture and cabinetry, thanks to its deep,
rich color and beautiful grain patterns.
WOOD DERIVATIVES

Wood derivatives are materials that are made from wood but have been
chemically or mechanically processed to alter their properties.

They are commonly used in interior applications because they are more
affordable and sustainable than solid wood.

Some common wood derivatives used in the industry include MDF, particleboard,
and plywood.

One benefit of using wood derivatives is that they are more uniform in texture
and color than solid wood, which can be desirable for certain design aesthetics.

However, one drawback is that they may not be as durable as solid wood and
may not hold up as well over time. It's important to consider these factors when
choosing between solid wood and wood derivatives for your interior projects.
TYPES OF WOOD DERIVATIVES

VEENERS:
The primary process in the manufacture of wood based products is veneering which
produces thin sheets of wood known as veneers.

The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 to 0.6 mm. In no case it should exceed 1
mm.

The most suitable wood for this purpose is walnut. However other species like teak,
shisham, rose wood, etc. are also used.

The logs to be used for this purpose are kept in wet storage to avoid end splitting
and are softened by heating with hot water or steam and the bark is removed.

The log is then cut to veneers.

Depending on the cutting process, the veneers are classified as rotary veneers and
sliced veneers.
PLYWOOD

Plywood is a composite material manufactured from thin layers,

or "plies", of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent
layers, having both glued with each other at right angle.

The outer most veneer sheets in a plywood panel are called

faces. The interior ply/plies which have their grain directions
parallel to that of the faces are termed as core.

Other piles which have grain directions perpendicular to that in

the face are termed as cross bands.

Plywood may be classified upon direction of grains in the plies

and on the type of adhesive used.

When the plies are bonded together with water-soluble glues

such as casein glue, interior grade plywood is obtained and when
bonded with phenol formaldehyde adhesive it is identified as
exterior grade plywood which is completely waterproof.
FIBRE BOARDS:

These boards built up of felting from wood or vegetable (wood

wastes, waste paper, agricultural wastes, etc.) are classified by
the process of their moulding.

If the boards are moulded by wet process, the main bond is by the
felting of woody fibers and not by added glue. For the boards
moulded by dry process, the bond between the pre-dried fibers
is improved by adding 4 – 8% of synthetic resin. For better
performance wood preservatives.

Fibre boards are manufactured in various densities like soft,

medium and hard.

The soft boards are used for walls and ceilings. Medium boards
find their application in paneling, partition walls, doors and
windows.

Hard boards have one surface smooth and the other one textured.
These have higher densities, better mechanical properties, and
Some of the trade names of hard boards are Masonite, Celotex,
Essex boards, etc. Hard boards are classified as medium,
standard or normal depending upon the density.

Uses:
They are widely used for wall and ceiling cladding, partitions,
doors, perforated acoustictiles, railway carriages, bus bodies, etc
Medium Density Fibreboard
(MDF)

MDF stands for Medium Density

Fibreboard.

MDF is made when the wood fibre

sheets are amalgamated with
thermosetting resins under high heat
and pressure, resulting in a board with a
consistent and close-packed fibre
distribution.

This engineered wood has now become

more reliable and affordable because of
rapid technological and industrial
advancements.
Particle Board or Chip Board

They are manufactured from particles of wood which are agglomerated, formed
and pressed together by the use of an organic binder together in the presence of
heat, pressure or moisture.

They are manufactured from small timber pieces and wood wastes. First it is
converted into small chips.

The moisture content of chips is reduced to a certain percentage and then

some gluing material, usually phenol formaldehyde, is sprayed.

The chips are then spread to form a mat and then pressed in a hydraulic press
in presence of heat and moisture.

Particle boards avoid wastage of timber as in its making the entire volume of the
fallen tree can be utilized.
The trees used for making particle boards are eucalyptus, subabool, and rubber
wood, and waste of saw mill.

These boards provide dimensional stability, smooth uniform surface, and no

difficulty in nailing.

Uses:
These are widely used in buildings, partitions, ceilings, floor slabs, doors,
furniture, etc
Blockboard

The core of block boards is made up of strips of wood, forming a slab, glued
between at least two surface veneers.

These are available in thicknesses of 12, 15, 19, 25, 30, 35, 40 and 50 mm.

Block Boards are available in sizes 2400 × 1200, 2100 × 1200, 1200 × 900, 1800 ×
1200, 1800 ×900 mm. These are further subgraded as Grade I and Grade 2.

Grade I is
exterior grade
used for bus bodies, railways coaches, prefabricated houses, etc. and

Grade 2 is
interior grade
used for furniture, partition, panelling, ceiling, etc.

Uses:
These are extensively used for construction of railways carriages, bodies of buses,
marine and river crafts, partitions, furniture, etc.
FINISHING MATERIALS LIKE LAMINATES, VENEERS,
PLASTICS AND METAL SHEETS
LAMINATES:
• Laminates are composite materials
made of layers of paper or fabric that
are infuse with resin and attached to a
core material.
• The resulting product is a strong,
lightweight material that can be used
for a variety of applications.
• One of the main benefits of laminates
is their durability. They are resistant to
scratches, stains, and moisture,
making them ideal for use in high-
traffic areas such as kitchens and
bathrooms.
• Laminates also come in a wide range
of colors and patterns, allowing
designers to create custom looks for
their projects. They are commonly
used in furniture, countertops, and
flooring.
VENEERS:

• Veneers are a popular choice for

finishing materials due to their natural
appearance and durability.
• They are thin slices of wood that are
applied to surfaces to enhance their
aesthetic appeal. Unlike laminates,
which are made from synthetic
materials, veneers offer a more
authentic look and feel.
• One advantage of veneers is their
versatility. They can be used on a
variety of surfaces, including walls,
furniture, and cabinetry.
• They also come in a range of colors and
patterns, allowing for customization to
fit any design scheme.
• Additionally, veneers are easy to
maintain and can last for many years
with proper care.
PLASTICS:

• Plastics have become a popular choice for

finishing materials due to their versatility
and durability.
• They can be molded into any shape or size,
making them ideal for a wide range of
applications.
• Additionally, plastics are lightweight and
resistant to impact, making them suitable
for use in high-traffic areas.
• One example of how plastics are used in
finishing materials is in the construction of
exterior cladding.
• Plastic cladding can mimic the look of
traditional wood or stone while providing
greater durability and resistance to
weathering.
• Plastics are also commonly used in flooring
materials, such as vinyl tiles, which are easy
to install and maintain.
METAL SHEETS:

• Metal sheets are a popular choice for

finishing materials due to their durability
and versatility. They can be used in a
variety of applications, from roofing and
siding to decorative accents.
• One of the main advantages of metal
sheets is their ability to withstand harsh
weather conditions and resist corrosion.
• This makes them ideal for outdoor use,
such as in construction projects or as
cladding for buildings.
• In addition to their practical benefits,
metal sheets also offer a sleek and
modern aesthetic that can enhance the
design of any project. They come in a
range of finishes and colors, allowing for
customization and creativity.
METAL SHEETS:

• Some common types of metal sheets

include aluminum, copper, and
stainless steel.
• Each material has its own unique
properties and applications. For .
example, aluminum is lightweight and
easy to work with, while copper offers
a distinctive look and excellent heat
conductivity.
• Overall, metal sheets are a reliable and
attractive option for finishing materials
in construction and design projects.
• By choosing the right type of metal
sheet for your specific needs, you can
ensure a long-lasting and visually
appealing result.
PAINTS AND VARNISHES
Introduction
• Paints and varnishes are more than just colors and finishes. They are a form of art that has
been used for centuries to beautify and protect surfaces. From the walls of ancient caves to
the modern buildings we see today, paints and varnishes have played a crucial role in shaping
our world.
• Paints are used to protect metals, timber or plastered surfaces from the corrosive effects of
weather, heat, moisture or gases etc. and also to improve their appearance. These coatings
enhance the aesthetic appeal of surfaces. They are used in various industries, including
construction, automotive, and furniture, to name a few.

Functions of Paint
1. It protects wood from decaying.
2. It prevents corrosion of metals.
3. It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.
4. It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.
5. It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric agencies.

Characteristics of Paint
6. The paint should be cheap.
7. It should be easy and harmless to the user.
8. It should retain its original colour for a long time.
9. It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum quantities.
10. The painted surface should dry neither too slowly nor too rapidly.
11. When applied, the paint should form a thin uniform film on painted surface.
7. The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
8. The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
9. It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
10. The painted surface should not show any cracks.
11. The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing appearance.
12. Atmospheric agencies should not be able to affect the painted surface.

Constituents of an Oil Paint

• A base
• An inert extender or filter
• A vehicle or carrier
• A drier
• A solvent or thinner
• A colouring pigment

Base
• It provides body to the paint and on it depends upon the nature of paints to a great extent. A
base in general should possess the following properties
• It is the solid matter forming the main body of the paint.
• It reduces shrinkage cracks formed on drying.
• It forms an opaque layer to unclear the surface of material to be painted. White lead, Red
lead, Zinc oxide, Iron oxide, and metallic powders such as Aluminium, Copper and Bronze
etc. are the commonly used bases.
An Inert Extender or Filter
• They are added in the paint to reduce the cost and also to modify some of the properties of the
paints.
• They reduce weight of the paint and render paint more durable.
• They should not be used in excess amount as otherwise paint may loose its original character
and may become weak.
• Barium sulphate silica, lithophone, whiting, charcoal, gypsum silicate of magnesia or alumina
etc. are the usual inert extenders.

Vehicles or Carriers
The liquid part of the paint is called vehicle. They are liquid substances which hold solid
ingredients of the paint.
In general vehicles or carriers possess the following properties :
• It is an oily liquid in which the base and pigment are soluble.
• It facilitates the paint to be conveniently spread evenly over the surface by means of a brush.
• It acts as a binder for the base and causes it to stick to the surface.
• On drying, it forms a tough and an elastic film. Oils most commonly used as vehicles are linseed
oil, poppy oil, nut oil and tung oil.

Driers
• These are metallic compounds which when added to the paint in small quantities accelerate
the process of drying of the paint.
• Driers have a tendency to affect the colour of the paint and also to destroy the elasticity of the
paint.
• Hence, they should not be used in excess amount.
• They are not used at all in final finishing coat of the paint.
• Driers should not be used in a paint that dries well.
• Litharge, manganese dioxide, lead acetate and cobalt are the usual driers, out of which
litharge is most commonly used.

Solvents or Thinners
• A liquid thinner is added to the prepared paints to increase their fluidity to the desired
consistency so as to make them work more smoothly and also to help penetration of porous
surfaces.
• It evaporates after the paint has been applied to the surface.
• It also helps the paint in its penetration into the surface to be painted.
• Turpentine oil, petroleum spirits and naphtha are mostly used as solvents or thinners.

Colouring Pigments
• These are colouring agents which are used to develop desired shade of the paint. In paints the
pigment is responsible for color.
• For white, black and other very dark shades, the base of the paint is chosen in such a way that,
it will develop the colour of the paint through base itself.
• In case of other shades, colouring pigments of desired shade are mixed with the paint.
• Colouring pigments may be divided into five divisions.
i. Precipitates
ii. Natural earth
iii. Calcined colours
iv. Lake colours
v. Metallic powders
Various coloring pigments to develop a particular color are as follows :
(i) Blue (ii) Brown (iii) Black (iv) Green (v) Yellow (vi) Red

Types of Paints The paints are of following types :

1. Aluminum Paint 9. Anti-Corrosive paints
2. Asbestos paints 10. Bituminous paint
3. Bronze paints 11. Cellulose paint
4. Casein paints 12. Cement paint
5. Enamel paint 13. Emulsion paint
6. Graphite paint 14. Plastic paints
7. Silicate paint 15. Luminous paint
8. Inodorous paint 16. Rubber paint

Details of each of these paints are described below :

Aluminum Paint :
• The paint is prepared by holding very finely ground aluminum in suspension either in quick
drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as per the requirements of the surface to be
painted.
• The suspension liquid is spirit or oil, evaporates and a thin metallic film of aluminum is left on
the surface.
• This paint is used for painting wood-work and metal surfaces. It is widely used for painting hot
water pipes, gas tanks, marine piers, oil storage tanks, radiators, etc. Anti-corrosive Paint
These paints are used mainly to protect the surface of metallic structural steel work, against
the negative effects of acids, corrosive chemicals fumes etc.
• There are several paints which exhibit these properties. These paints essentially consist of
the linseed oil, as vehicle and red lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide, zinc dust, zinc chromate etc.
as their base.
• These paints are cheap, durable and are usually black in color.

Asbestos Paints :
• This paint is used for stopping leakage of metal roofs and painting gutters, spouts, flashings
etc. to prevent their rusting.
• The paint is also used as damp proof coat to cover the outer face of the basement walls.
This paint can withstand the effects of acidic gases and steam.

Bituminous Paint :
• This paint consists of asphalt, bitumen or pitches, dissolves in any type of oil or petroleum.
• The paint is always black in color but its color can be modified by mixing certain pigment
like red oxide etc. in it.
• The paint is used mostly for painting iron-works under water. These paints deteriorate
when exposed to direct sun. It is also used for water proofing.

Bronze Paint :
• These paints are prepared by disbursing aluminum bronze or copper bronze in nitro-
cellulose lacquer as vehicle.
• They produce a very reflective type of surface and hence very useful for being applied on
radiators.
• These paints are equally effective for painting interior or exterior metallic surfaces.
Cellulose Paint :
• This type of paint is prepared from cellulose sheets, nitro-cotton and photographic films.
• This paint dries very quickly and provides a flexible, hard and smooth surface. The paint
does not harden by oxidation but by evaporation of thinning agent.
• The surface of the paint can be easily washed and cleaned. It remains unaffected by hot
water, smoky or acidic atmosphere.
• This paint is used for painting cars, aero planes etc.

Casein Paint :
• Casein is a product extracted from milk curd. Casein paint when mixed with base like
whiting, titanium, lithophone, etc. forms the paint which is usually available in powder or
paste form.
• This paint has high capacity and can be applied on new plaster work.
• It is usually used on walls, ceilings wall, cements block construction etc. to increase the
appearance of the surface.

Cement Paint :
• This paint is available in powder form.
• It consists of white or colored cement as its base and water acts as a vehicle. No oil or
varnish is added to it.
• This paint is available in variety of shades. It is durable and water-proof.
• This paint proves to be useful for surfaces which are damp at the time of painting and are
also likely to remain damp after painting.
Enamel Paint :
• This paint is prepared by adding base like white lead or zinc white to a vehicle which is a
varnish. To obtain the desired color, coloring pigments may also be added.
• This paint dries slowly and forms a hard, durable, smooth, glossy, solid thin film. Enamel
paints can be used both for interior as well as exterior painting.

Emulsion Paint :
• This paint consists of synthetic resin like polyvinyl acetate.
• It can be applied easily. It retains its colour for a very long time. The surface of the paint is
tough and can be cleaned by washing with water.
• This paint has excellent resistance against action of alkali. It dries very quickly in about one to
two hours.

Graphite Paint :
• It is black in color. It is used over the surface which come in contact with ammonia, chlorine,
Sulphur gases, etc.
• It is very much used in under ground railways.

Plastic Paint :
• This paint contains a variety of plastics in suspension and is available in the market under
different trade name.
• It is mostly used in show rooms, display rooms, and auditorium etc. It can be applied by spray
or by brush.
Luminous Paint :
• This paint is prepared by mixing calcium sulphide with varnish. This paint shines in darkness
like radium dials of watches.
• This paint should be applied on surface which have been rendered free from corrosion or
lead paints in particular.

Inodorous Paint :
• This paint consists of white lead or zinc white mixed with methylated spirit. No turpentine is
used in this paint. White lead or zinc white is ground in oil.
• Shellac with same quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is dissolved in methylated spirit and
this mixture is mixed with lead or zinc white paste prepared in linseed oil.
• This paint dries quickly, but is not durable.

Rubber Paint :
This paint is prepared by treating rubber with chlorine gas (chlorinated rubber) and then
dissolving it in suitable solvent.
This paint can be used on new concrete and lime plastered surfaces. This paint dries quickly.
It is little affected by weather and sunlight. It is resistant against chemical actions, water, etc.

Silicate Paint :
• It is prepared by mixing calcium and finely ground silica with resinous materials. It forms a
very hard and durable film on painted surface.
• It can be directly applied on brick, concrete or plastered surface, but only after wetting them.
Painting Processes
• Application of paint to a surface either with a brush or by spraying is known as painting. The
surface to be painted should be perfectly smooth, clean and dry.
• Presence of moisture between the paint and surface to be painted or between successive
coats of paints causes blisters.
• Painting should as far as possible be carried out in dry weather. Brush of only good quality,
the hair of which do not come off while painting, should be used.
• The paint is applied on the surface in two, three or four coats.
• The first coat is known as priming coat and last one as finishing coat. All the intervening coats
are known as under coats.
• Prime coat forms a thin film which helps in adhesion of the paint with the surface. It also
protects the surface from weathering action.
• Materials for priming coat should be selected keeping in view the nature of the surface to be
painted. Under coats serve as foundation on to the finishing coat.
• These coats fill all the irregularities of the surface. Finishing coat is lastly applied as per the
requirements.

Painting on Plastered Surface : A plastered surface should be painted only after it has thoroughly
dried, otherwise the paint would get split.
The following factors should be kept in mind while painting a plastered surface :
(i) As far as possible fresh plastered surfaces should not be painted. At least 6 months to 12
months time should be given to the plastered surface to dry completely.
(ii) Fresh plaster is alkaline in nature, because lime is liberated during the hydration of cement.
Oil based paints and distempers are prone to alkali attack in the presence of moisture.
iii. Hence, if freshly plastered surface is to be painted, an alkali resistant primer paint should
be applied or alternatively paints not containing any oil should be used.
iv. Spots of plastered surface showing efflorescence should be brushed off. If spots appear
again, they should again be brushed off and painting should be postponed till such spots
ceases to appear.
v. In case of new plastered surfaces, a solution of one kilogram of zinc sulphate in two
kilograms of water should be applied to the surface.
vi. When it has dried then a coat of pure raw linseed oil is applied. It is followed by two coats
of paint thinned with turpentine and a little varnish. Third coat consisting of white lead,
linseed oil, desired pigment and a little oil of turpentine is then applied.
vii. Finishing coat may be the same as third coat but with a little more of turpentine oil.
However, these days paints are available in market that can be applied directly on newly
plastered surfaces. These are known as cement paints.

Painting on Concrete Surfaces

• For painting concrete surfaces, cement paints are used. They are available in powder form.
• They are used by mixing with water.
• Prepared paint should be consumed within 2 hrs or its preparation. Two coats should be
applied at an interval of 24 hrs. The painted surface should be cured by sprinkling water at
intervals.
Defects in Painting

Fading :
The paint may lose some of its colour due to effects of sunrays on colouring pigments.

Flaking :
Due to poor adhesion, paint may peel off from the surface.

Grinning:
If the opacity of the final coat is insufficient, the back ground of the painted surface is clearly
visible. This defect is known as grinning.

Bloom:
Due to bad ventilation or defective paint, dull patches are developed on the painted surface.

Flashing:
This is opposite of bloom. In this defect, glossy patches are developed on the painted surface.
The reason of this defect may be cheap paint, weather reaction or poor workmanship.

Blistering :
This defect occurs due to trapped moisture behind the painted surface.

Running :
This defect occurs when the surface to be painted is very smooth. In this defect, small areas of
the surface are left uncovered with paint.
Sagging :
Thickness of painting should not be excessive. If too much thick coat of paint is applied, the
defect is known as sagging.

Wrinkling : This defect occurs in thickly painted surfaces. Saponification Defect of formation of
soap patches on the painted surface is known as saponification. This defect occurs due to
chemical action of the alkalis..

Painting is an easy job but also has its own peculiarities. The following are the main causes of
failure of paint.
Bad Workmanship : Painters are generally in habit of thinning the paint too much so that he
may Paints and Varnishes save paint and labor both. This leads to bad workmanship and it is
possible that paint may be absent for portions of surface.

Wrong Choice of Paint : Choice of paint is done based upon climatic conditions, nature of
surface to be painted and so many other factors affecting the performance of the paint. Low
quality paints are cheap but their durability is very poor.

Surface Penetration : If the surface to be painted has not been prepared well to receive the
paint, it may lead to failure of the paint. Moisture Leakage of moisture on any painted surface
accelerates the process of separating the paint layer from the surface.

Conditions for Painting : The painting should be done when atmospheric conditions are
favorable. Dirt, dust and moisture must not get entrapped during the process of painting.
VARNISHES
Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine. The process of
covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing. Varnishing is done only on wooden
surface.

Functions of Varnish
• It brings about brilliance to the painted surface.
• It protects the surface against adverse effects of the atmosphere.
• It increases the durability of the paint film.
• It beautifies the surface without hiding the beautiful grains of the wood.
• Varnish plays an important part in finishing wooden surfaces of doors, windows, floors,
furniture, etc.

Properties of Good Varnish

A good varnish should possess the following properties :
(i) It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.
(ii) It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
(iii) It should make the surface glossy.
(iv) It should dry rapidly.
(v) It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing appearance.
(vi) The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface should be tough, hard and
durable.
(vii) The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when varnished surface is exposed to
atmospheric action.
Constituents of the
Varnish A varnish has usually three elements :
(i) Resins or resinous material
(ii) Driers
(iii) Solvents

Resins or Resinous Material:

Quality of varnish depends much upon the quality of resin used.
Copal, lac, amber and rosin are the commonly used resins for varnishes.
Copal is considered to be best.

Driers :
Driers are used to accelerate the process of drying of the varnish.
Litharge, lead, acetate, and white copper are the various types of driers, out of which litharge is
mostly used.

Solvents :
Selection of solvent is made depending upon the type of resin.

Types of Varnish :
The varnishes can be classified into following categories depending upon the solvent used :
(iv) Oil Varnish
(v) Spirit Varnish
(vi) Turpentine Varnish (
iv. Water Varnish
v. Asphalt Varnish
vi. Spar Varnish
vii. Flat Varnish

Oil Varnish:
This type of varnish is manufactured by dissolving hard resins such as amber and copal in
linseed oil.
Turpentine may be used in small quantity to thin the varnish, and also to render it workable.
Oil varnishes form a hard and durable film, but they dry slowly.

Spirit Varnish :
Spirit varnish consists of spirit and shellac. This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving resins
such as lac or shellac. Paints and Varnishes in methylated spirit.
This varnish dries very quickly and gets easily affected by weather action.
This varnish is mostly used for wood furniture.

Turpentine Varnish In this type of varnish, gum, dammar, mastic, and rosin like resins are
dissolved in turpentine.
These varnishes are light in colour and dry quickly.

Water Varnish:
This varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in hot water.
Shellac does not dissolve readily in water and as such to accelerate the process of dissolving
shellac in water either ammonia or potash, or soda or borax is added. This varnish is used for
painting pictures, posters and maps.

Asphalt Varnish :
This varnish is obtained by dissolving melted asphalt in linseed oil. The varnish may be thinned
by adding suitable amount of either turpentine or petroleum spirit.
This varnish is used for varnishing fabricated iron and steel product.

Spar Varnish:
This varnish derives its name from its use. It is mostly used on spars and other exposed parts
of the ships. It is very good weather resistant. It should not be used indoor.

Flat Varnish :
This is an ordinary varnish to which material such as wax, finely divided silica and metallic
soaps are added, to reduce the gloss of the varnished surface. This varnish presents a dull
appearance.

Process of Varnishing
Following operations are required to be carried out while varnishing a wooden surface :
• Preparation of Surface The surface to be varnished should be thoroughly rubbed smooth by
means of sand paper and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.
• Knotting It is the process by which knots on the surface of wood work are killed by applying
certain substance over the knots.
Hardware required for application to
interior and furniture elements.
Introduction
• Hardware is one of the most important aspects of interior and furniture design.
• While it may not be the first thing that comes to mind when you think of design, hardware can make
or break a piece of furniture or an entire room. It's the small details that count, after all.
• Hardware’s are the integral pieces that equip to form an upscale elegance to any interior
space. Consequently, technology and modern innovations have made them available in
various designs, materials, and finishes that suit the required styles.
• By Syncing with utmost functionality, these hardware pieces adding character while ensuring
longevity with low frictional applications each time.
• Therefore, the interior hardware fittings are the vital and inevitable pieces that keep the
interior components bind and substantial.
• On the other hand, it allows users to reduce excessive forces, minimize repetitive tasks, and
diminish the contact stresses.

Materials
• Hardware can be made from a variety of materials, each with its own unique properties and
characteristics.
• Metal hardware, for example, is strong and durable, making it an excellent choice for heavy-
duty applications such as cabinet doors or drawers. However, metal can be prone to rust and
corrosion if not properly treated or coated.

Chrome :
• Chrome is a thin layer of electroplate {0.002 to 0.02 mils (0.05 to 0.5 μm)} coating on the base
material. Usually, base materials include aluminum, steel, plastic, copper, and zinc alloy.
• The mirror-like polished finish or satin and brushed
finishes of chrome plating enhance minimal and
contemporary aesthetics.
• Dark chrome in a lustrous matt or glossy shine is
the preferred choice in industrial style interiors.
Corrosion-resistant and light in weight properties
make chrome a good option for handles and knobs.
• Yet its high luster finish can quickly develop fingerprints marks and scratches. The regular
cleaning and polishing routine is advisable to maintain the aesthetic properties of chrome
fittings.
Steel :
• Steel is a metal alloy without electroplated coating
and requires nickel and chromium to hold
durability. Besides, even in heavy wear and tear
conditions, it does not thrive scratches and dents
easily.
• These properties make the steel an excellent
choice to mold heavy-duty and sustainable
components, likewise Kitchen sinks or bathroom
fixtures.
• Most importantly, Stainless steel fittings can effortlessly merge with stainless steel appliances
that pre-housed every kitchen composition. However, taking into account the cost-effective thin
layered plated steel accessories mainly use in indoor applications. Although, Solid steel is the
recommended option to plug into outdoors to stand and sustains with the weather extremities.
Nickel:
• Nickel is an excellent choice to combine in
vintage, classical, or country-style interiors.
• The warm and mild earthy tones honed in
semigloss and brushed finishes are popularly in
demand. It is maintenance-friendly and less
prone to develop stains & scratches, yet
coordinate nickel fixtures with existing steel
components are back-breaking.
• However, to maintain a seamless uniformity into
the design, try associating it within complete
earthy elements that conserve the style

Bronze :
• Bronze is a copper and tin mixed alloy. To give it a
dark rustic appearance, manufacturers use
technics of oil rubbing.
• Bronze pieces are the style statement in high-end
luxuries spaces, mostly classical, industrial, and
rustic Interiors, that demand bronze finishes.
• It is an expensive yet maintenance-friendly
material if compare with others from the list.
Brass :
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc constituents and
oxidizes simply by exposing it to air.
• It requires tarnish of clear lacquer or a thin film of
oiling that provides a rich luster to it.
• The coated finish gives a stunning high-class gold-like
look, which certainly plays a role in high-end Interior
spaces.
• Brass is a choice that can replace Bronze. It pairs
great with classic-style painted cabinets

Aluminum:
• Aluminum is eco-friendly, cost-effective, and durable
material.
• The strength to withstand forces, therefore, makes it
the right choice for various Interior purposes.
• It is preferably accepting in manufacturing hinges,
profiles, sliding channels, and partition frames.

PVC :
• PVC is an engineered material gaining popularity and
demand in Interiors.
• It’s easy to mold property, mechanical strength, cost-
effectiveness leading this as a future foremost
material. That can shape and replace to fit into any
• Plastic hardware, on the other hand, is lightweight and inexpensive, making it a popular
choice for more budget-friendly projects. It is also resistant to moisture and won't rust or
corrode like metal. However, plastic hardware may not be as strong as metal and may not
hold up as well over time.

• Wooden hardware is another option, particularly for furniture pieces where a natural, rustic
look is desired. Wood is versatile and can be stained or painted to match any decor style.
However, wooden hardware may not be as durable as metal or plastic and may require more
maintenance to keep it looking its best.

Types of Hardware
• When it comes to interior and furniture design, hardware plays an essential role. It not only
adds functionality but also enhances the overall aesthetic appeal of the piece.
• There are various types of hardware that designers can choose from, including knobs,
handles, hinges, and drawer slides. Each type of hardware has its unique features and
benefits that make it suitable for specific applications.

Knobs & handles:

A great innovation achieving clean line, seamless and modern interiors by eliminating the need
for handles and knobs.
With more comfortable to fit in small corners of drawers and cabinets, these fittings facilitate an
effortless push.
The essential hardware pieces and a ubiquitous part of daily life wrap up every Interior to a final
grace.
• They are available in various materials
to suit desired Interior concepts.
• Copper, Brass, or zinc alloy adds
richness to the classical style, yet steel
and chrome blends into minimalism;
And wood and leather contribute to
modern interior spaces.

Hinges
• Hinges are the indistinct, small, and
often rare noticeable essential fittings
for doors and cabinets.
• There are various sizes and types
available in the market depends on the
functional requirement.
• Heavy-duty ball-bearing and butt
hinges are ideal for fixing doors and
heavy cabinets. Piano hinges allow an
extension to workbenches and desks.
• Pivot hinges are excellent to swing
cabinet door/shutter from a single
point. Yet, a wide variety of hinges are
present in the market, allowing
endless possibilities in furniture
designing.
Installation
• Installing hardware onto interior and furniture elements
can be a daunting task, but with the right tools and
knowledge, it can be a breeze.
• The first step is to gather all the necessary tools,
including a drill, screws, screwdriver, and measuring
tape. It's important to measure accurately to ensure that
the hardware is installed in the correct location.
• Once you have your tools ready, the next step is to mark
the location where the hardware will be installed. Use a
pencil or marker to make a small dot or line where the
screw will go.
• Then, use the drill to create a pilot hole. This will make it
easier to insert the screw and prevent the wood from
splitting.
• After the pilot hole has been drilled, insert the screw into
the hardware and align it with the pilot hole.
• Use a screwdriver to tighten the screw until it's snug. Be
careful not to over-tighten the screw, as this can cause
damage to the hardware or the furniture element.
• Repeat these steps for each piece of hardware that
needs to be installed. Once all the hardware is in place,
double-check that everything is level and secure.
• If any adjustments need to be made, now is the time to
do it.
Questions
1. Explain the properties and characteristics of wood/timber?
2. How to process wood? Explain in detail.
3. Write the defects of wood/timber?
4. Explain the Market forms of wood/timber?
5. Differentiate between laminate and veneer?
6. What is wood derivative? Explain in detail.
7. What are the finishing materials use for interior? Explain.
8. What are the ingredients of paints and what are the types of paint?
9. What is varnish? Explain its function and properties in detail.
10. Explain the hardware required for application to interior and furniture elements with
their names.
11. Explain the material used for Hardware?
12. What is the process used for hardware installation ?
13. Explain different types of hinges with sketches?
14. Different types of boards used in interior furniture work?