Note-2
Functional Elements of a Measurement
System
Ex 1: Elements of a SIMPLE instrument (e.g. Electro-mechanical
voltmeter)
Ex 2: Elements of another (not so simple)
instrument
Physical
measurement Analog signal Analog signal
variable variable variable
Generally, measurement systems contain three
functional elements:
1. Primary sensing element
2. Signal conditioning element and
3. Data presentation element
Each element is made up of a distinct component or a group
of components which perform the required function
1. Primary sensing element
Variously known as detector/sensor or transducer
2. Signal conditioning element
- Sometimes, the raw signal output from the sensor is not
suited to the desired performance of the system. So
signal conditioning may be required.
- For example: filtering noise, amplifying signal and A/D
conversion
- Many instruments do not need any signal conditioning
element
3. Data presentation element
The quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to a
personnel or to the system for monitoring, control, or
analyses purposes.
• manual monitoring: visual display
(LED/LCD, pointer etc.)
• recording: magnetic tape, printers, computer etc.
• control and analysis: computer, microcontroller
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
Passive Sensors
Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the measurement
process but may remove energy in their operation
Example: Photographic, thermal, electric field sensing, chemical, infrared
Active Sensors
Add energy to the measurement environment as part of the
measurement process.
Example: A radar or sonar system, where the distance to some object is measured by
actively sending out a radio (radar) or acoustic (sonar) wave to reflect off of some
object and measure its range from the sensor.
Calibration:The relationship between the physical measurement
variable (input) and the signal variable (output) for a specific sensor
is known as the calibration of the sensor. Typically, a sensor (or an
entire instrument system) is calibrated by providing a known
physical input to the system and recording the output.
Calibration
Curve:
Sensitivity: Ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a
change of input or measured variable.
Types of errors:
Gross errors: largely human errors,
e.g. misreading, incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments.
Systematic errors (bias): shortcomings of the instruments, e.g. effects of
environment (temperature, humidity etc) on the instrument, change in
instrument response due to aging.
❑ Use of compensation can reduce/remove some systematic error
❑ Periodic recalibration can prevent systematic error.
Random error (noise): caused by the noise introduced during the measurement
process and random variation of input itself.
Taking a large number of readings and averaging them can reduce the effect of
noise.
Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the variable
- It is affected by the systematic error (bias) of the
instrument
= true value – statistical mean of the measurements
Precision: A measure of the reproducibility (or spread) of the
measurements. It is a measure of the degree to which successive
measurements differ from one another.
- It is affected by the random error (noise) of the instrument
= standard deviation (σ) of the measurement
Bulls-eye (Target)
Illustration
Classifications of
Instruments
Basic classification;
1. Mechanical instruments- They are very reliable for static and
stable conditions.
Disadvantage: unable to respond rapidly to measurement of
dynamic and transient conditions.
2.Electrical instruments- This method is more rapid than mechanical
methods. They normally depends upon a electro-mechanical meter
movement
3. Electronic/photonic instruments:- Have very fast response.
- Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable of following
dynamic and transient changes of the order of few nanoseconds
(10-9 s)
- Photonic instruments have resolution of femtosecond (10 -15),
and even attosecond (10-18)
Classifications of Electrical
Instruments
This classification is based on various effects of electricity:
• Magnetic effect: Used in deflection-type ammeters, voltmeters,
watt-
meters etc.
• Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters
• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters
•Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters,
wattmeters
Classification based on the Nature of their Operations
•Indicating instruments: Indicated by means of a mechanical
pointer which moves on a scale, or digital display. e.g.,
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter
•Recording instruments: Record continuously the variation of
any electrical quantity with respect to time.
•Integrating instruments: Record the consumption of the total
quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of
time. Ampere-hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh) meter
Classification based on the kind of current on which
the
operate:
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
•Both direct current and alternating current instruments
(dc/ac instruments).
Mesurement of Electrical
Quantities
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
• Energy
• Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
Indicating (Pointer type)
Instruments
In a pointer type instrument, it is essential that the
moving system is acted upon by two distinct torque (or
forces) for satisfactory working. The torques are:
1. A deflecting or operating torque, Td
2. A controlling (spring) torque, Tc
Two other opposing torque that
are Important in dynamic
condition:
3. An inertia torque, Ti
4. A damping torque, TD
Galvanomete
r
Used for detecting presence of Current or Voltage
Applications:
in bridge circuit, where their function is to indicate
zero current
Galvanometer
D’Arsonval
Galvanometer
Construction
Moving coil system: Either rectangular or circular.
Damping: There exists a damping torque due to
production of eddy current in metal former on which coil
is mounted.
Indication: The suspension carries a small mirror upon
which a beam of light is cast, and it is reflected onto a
scale on which deflection is measured.
Torque
Equation
The equation for the deflecting torque can be obtained
from
the basic laws of electromagnetics
G is called the displacement 23
Dynamic Behaviour: Equation of
Motion
Deflecting Torque: Td = Gi
Opposing Torques:
1. Inertia Torque:
2. Damping Torque:
3.Control/restoring Torque:
Deflecting Torque = Opposing
Torque
So,
Where:
G = Displacement
constant J = Moment of
inertia
D = Damping constant
K = Spring/control
constant
Complete Solution: sum of ‘complemetary function’ and
a ‘particular integral’
Auxiliary
equation: Roots
Particular Integral: at steady
are:
state:
Complete Solution:
Complete
Solution:
Where,
3 possible cases:
Case I:
Roots are complex; the motion is oscillatory called
UNDERDAMPED MOTION
Case II:
Roots are real and equal. The movement is CRITICALLY
DAMPED
Case III:
Roots are real and unequal. The movement is called
OVERDAMPED. The motion is non-oscillatory.
In this case, the meter pointer reaches its final steady-
state position in a sluggish manner.
Another special case: Undamped
motion
The pointer will oscillate around the final position
forever
Angular frequency of undamped motion:
This motion is also termed as NATURAL or FREE
motion.
