PART A

Essays
 Rationale for Essays
• Developing writing skills; express your views about a topic; engage in critical
debates about your topic.
 What is an Essay?

• An essay is a piece of writing that explores a topic in

detail. Essays usually answer a given question.
• An essay is a short literary composition dealing with a
single subject.
• An essay is made up of several paragraphs.
• In developing paragraphs into essays you need to
realize that there are similarities between the basic
organization of a paragraph and that of an essay.
 Foundation for developing Essays
• Starts at the word level- good choice of words.
• Sentence level-construction of grammatically correct
sentences.
• Paragraph level-construction of a good paragraph:
should have a topic sentence: a sentence that has the
main idea, it identifies the paragraphs main idea.
• Essay level- Thesis statement: the main point of the
whole essay. It is usually composed of a group of topic
sentences.
• Both topic sentence and thesis statements are used by
writers to focus their ideas and express the main point
of their writing.
• Clincher: A sentence or limited group of sentences at
the end of the concluding paragraph.
• An effective clincher leaves the audience/reader with
a strong final impression of the essay.
• The clincher should relate to the overall purpose or
thesis (thesis statement) of the essay.
Types of essays
1. Descriptive essay
• Describes something (object, place,
experience, situation, subject, someone, etc.
by appealing to the readers’ senses: sight, feel,
taste, smell and sound.
• It gives readers the ability to vividly imagine
the situation or scene and feel as if they are
experiencing it first-hand.
• A descriptive essay can also describe what
something is, or how something happened
using many sensory details -keeping the reader
interested in the plot (what happens in a story)
and theme (the message the writer is trying to
convey) of the event described.
• Topic examples could be “The Lilongwe Flood
Disaster”, “LUANAR Innovation Day;” “The
Lecture Hall 3 at LUANAR City Campus.”
 Guidelines for Writing Descriptive
Essays
• Create a dominant impression (overall feeling about
the subject), such as causing the readers to
sympathize with you about a sad event that
happened or to agree with you strongly on a certain
controversial topic.
• Choose the details and descriptions that will help
accomplish the impression.
• Use comparisons. In order to help make the
descriptions even more vivid to the reader.
Similes/metaphors are more powerful
• Examples of Similes (comparison by using like
or as: “His emotional state was like a roller
coaster”; “Her smile was like a ray of sunlight
in the dark sea of unfamiliar faces.”
• Example of metaphors (directly compares one
thing to another for rhetorical effect): “All the
world’s is a stage, and all the men and women
merely players”. (William Shakespeare)
 2. Persuasive/argumentative Essay
• An argumentative essay makes a claim and then
gives examples and evidence to prove that point.
• It attempts to persuade the reader to the writer’s
point of view.
• The writer must choose a side and defend their side
of an argument, consider and refute alternative
arguments with examples or supporting evidence.
• Topic examples: “Money cannot buy love or
happiness”; “Anyone under 16 should not be
allowed to date”. “Advertising is a mind game.”
Guidelines for Writing Persuasive Essays
• Tell your reader what you believe about the
issue very clearly and specifically in your thesis
statement or controlling idea (it contains your
opinion about the topic).
• Use convincing details as evidence to support
your claim. These should be from credible and
reliable/reputable sources.
• Choose the most appropriate way of arguing
your point (inductive or deductive).
• Inductive - start with stating all the evidence
(data) and then move on to one conclusion.
• Deductive - start with one basic statement of
belief and move on to the supporting points of
evidence.
• Acknowledge opposing viewpoints to prove you
have thought about the topic thoroughly yet still
find that your point is correct. Dismissing them
completely will weaken the argument.
The graphic difference
 Inductive / Deductive Reasoning Quiz
• Generally, when food consumed contains more calories than
needed, the excess calories are stored as fat. Many
teenagers eat far more high calorie foods than their bodies
need. Consequently, many teenagers are overweight.
• All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number
35 ends with a 5, so it must be divisible by 5.
3. Narrative Essays
• Narrative essays tell a story with a purpose of
creating a sense of shared history, providing
entertainment, insight and offering instruction.
• It allows you to express yourselves in creative
and moving ways.
• For example: “My experience of using
SPSS/Moodle/Ms Excel at LUANAR.
Guidelines for Writing Narrative
Essays
• State the purpose in your thesis statement, or
controlling idea, and build upon it throughout the
essay by using examples, stories, and other details
that all relate back to the main idea.
• Involve readers in the story and create a visual
picture by using dialogue and physical
description.
• Make the story interesting and heighten suspense:
Use chronology (the order in which events
happened)
Flashbacks (interruption in story sequence, taking
the reader back to an earlier time/past/history)
flash-forward (interruption in story sequence,
taking the reader to the future.
Foreshadowing : Is used to give clues on what is to
happen later in the story (giving a hint that
something is going to happen).
• Examples of foreshadowing: ‘The boy noticed a dark spot
in the ceiling, but ignored it”. “ I told myself this is the end
of my trouble, but I didn’t believe myself”.
• Example of flashback: A mother remembers her murdered
child. While going to church, she remembers her child’s
birth, growing up and death.
• Example of flash forward: “She could not wait to become a
graduate, a Director of an NGO, establish a trust to pay
school fees for all needy students from her school…..”
 4. Critical Essay
• Analyses a book, film, article, or work of art, e.g. a painting,
etc.
• The goal is to offer an interpretation of some aspect. For
example, critical analysis of a book might focus on the tone
of the text, methods used to collect or analyze data (their
strengths and weaknesses).
• Example topics: “The strengths and weaknesses of the
Shannon’s Model of Communication;” “A critical review of
the Sustainable Development Goals”.
Guidelines for Writing Critical Essays
• A critical essay should include an argumentative thesis
about the text and plenty of textual evidence sources
to help support your interpretation of the text.
• An argumentative thesis takes a position, asserting
the writer’s stance. For example, Peanut butter and
jelly sandwiches are the best type of sandwich
because they are versatile, easy to make, and taste
good.
• Get to know the text/piece of art etc. inside and out
by reading and rereading it, observing (in case of a
piece of art), etc.
• Take notes of what is puzzling and provide solutions
that are research based.
 5. Compare and Contrast Essay
• Compares and contrasts two or more subjects and
show their similarities (comparisons) and their
differences (contrasts).
• One way to write this type of essay would be to
choose two or more objects, events, experiences, or
ideas and compare and contrast them according to a
few specific points.
Guidelines for Writing Compare and
Contrast Essays
• Have a clear purpose and a main point (to express
ideas, to inform, to persuade, etc.).
• Make sure your subjects have something specific on
which you can base your comparison and contrast.
• Your thesis statement, or controlling idea, should
identify whether you will be talking about similarities,
differences, or both.
• Decide the order that best suits your essay. The two
main ways you can choose to organize a comparison
and/or contrast essay are:
 • Point – by – point organization: Switching back and forth
between the subjects (comparing/contrasting them)
according to several main points within each paragraph.
• Subject – by – subject organisation: Writing about all the
main points of one subject in one paragraph and then
writing about all the main points of another subject, in
the subsequent paragraph and so on, referring back to
the other subject(s) in a comparing/contrasting way.
• Have a sufficient number of significant characteristics
and details.
• Give an equal amount to all sides
Reference: Lecture Notes p.45
Examples
• Assuming your subjects are apples and oranges (the
items that you are comparing and contrasting are the
subjects)
Point by point organization
Paragraph 1: (Compare) Apples and oranges are both
tree fruits often grown commercially in large orchards.
(Contrast) However, apples grow in every climate and
oranges need tropical temperatures to produce fruit.
Paragraph 2: (Compare) Although both fruits can be
juiced, (contrast) apples are pressed and only the juice
is bottled while both pulp and juice is squeezed from
oranges.
Example:
• Subject by subject
Paragraph 1: Apples are a tree fruit that is often grown
commercially in large orchards. As well as eaten from
the tree, apples are also pressed in to apple juice or
crushed and processed in to applesauce.
Paragraph 2: Oranges are also a tree fruit, often grown
commercially in large orchards. Like apples, they can be
eaten from the tree, squeezed into juice or processed in
to orange sauce.
• The first paragraph the subject is apples and the
second is oranges.
Last paragraph: Compare and contrast points discussed
in paragraphs one and two).
For example:
One big difference between apples and oranges is the
way they are processed. Notice that while apples are
pressed for juice, orange juice is squeezed from the
orange. Another difference is that while apple juice
contains only the liquid pressed from the apple, orange
juice may also contain the pulp form of the orange.
Although applesauce contains the pureed pulp of pared
apple, orange sauce may contain bits of orange rind as
well as the pulp of the fruit.
6. Expository/ Process Essay
• Essays that explain or describe something with facts.
• They present facts and not opinions.
• The process essay explains to the audience how to do
something or how to complete a task.
• It generally explains actions that should be done in a
series. It can explain in detail how to accomplish a specific
task, it can show how an individual came to a certain
personal awareness.
• The assay could be in form of systematic (step-by-step)
instructions, or in a story form, with the
instructions/explanations subtly given along the way.
Topic examples: Explain how to set up a new cellphone;
How do you bake a wedding cake?
7. Cause/Effect essays: Are concerned with
why things happen (causes) and what happens as
a result (effects) (refer to LDC 31101 notes).
8. Definition Essay: Defines a word, term, or
concept in depth by providing a personal
commentary on what the specific subject
means. E.g. Climate change. Topic may be for
example, “What is climate change”? What
is the meaning of affirmative education?
What is quarter system in education
context?
Organisation of an Essay
I. Parts of an Essay
A. Title vs (Topic)
• A Title is the name of your written work that you as a
writer normally chooses, but sometimes it is assigned to
you. E.g. Educated women make better wives.
• A Topic is what the essay is about. E.g. my essay is about
importance of education.
• A title is used to identify the work,
• to place the work in context,
• to convey a minimal summary of the contents of the work,
• And to arouse the readers curiosity.
Analysing the Title
• Core question: should contain the question the
essay should answer.
• Issue of debate: a title that allows you to
debate issues relevant to your subject.
• Research evidence: availability of published
research to support the topic.
• Simple: avoid long; complex; using several
questions; quotations must be short followed
by a typical assignment question.
• Some Tips:
• Avoid general titles (or even) topics: such as
“Malawi”
• Avoid abbreviations
• Avoid repetition of words (short and catchy)
• Punctuations: Avoid full stops, double or more
question marks; explore use of a colon.
Characteristics of a good title
• It should predict the contents of the essay/ work
• It should be interesting to the reader
• It should reflect the tone of the writing
• It should contain important keywords
• It should be short enough (not more than 15 words)
Practice: What are the weaknesses or strengths of
these titles?
• Reptiles
• ‘The world is a safer place than it has ever been.’ J.K. Moody
(2008). Is this really true?
• The negative effects of violence on television.
• Describe how ICTs work?
• What are the main changes in the use of technology within the
British home during the twentieth century/ What was the
incentive behind the innovation? Who promoted change? Did
these affect women differently from men? What forces have
hindered change.
• Dead Aid: Why aid is not working and how there is a
better way for Africa.
• Winner Takes it All: China’s race for resources and
what it means for the world.
• Dr. Dambisa Moyo
• The Earthquake that Occurred in Karonga in the Year
2010
• Describe the House in which You Grew up
• A dream
• In the dark world
• In the dark world: A book review
• Wonders of the Ancient World
• Nyika the Most Beautiful Plateau
• The Nyika Plateau of Malawi
• Mother Teresa Vs. Osama Bin Laden
• Improved cattle Breeds have more benefits over local
breeds
• The benefits of improved Cattle Breeds over Local
Breeds
• The road accident
• The 2017 Lilongwe Market Fire Accident
• Comparing northern region and southern region tree
availability
• Comparing the value of Miombo Trees in the Northern and
Southern Regions of Malawi
• Gender based violence on women
• Causes of Gender Based Violence on Women: A case of
Mitundu.
• Analysis of Malawian Wedding
• Analysis of Malawian Ngoni Traditional Wedding Ceremony
• It is better to insure the mandasi business to be safe
from risks.
• Insurance of Mandasi Business in Zomba: A
necessity?
• My experience of having multiple partners
• My Experience of Poultry Business Partnership
• Compare and contrast note taking and note making
• A Comparison of Notetaking and Note making in
Study Skills
 B. Introduction
• The introduction establishes the context and gives
the reader background information necessary for
undertaking meaning, relevance and importance of
the topic.
• Some guidelines on how you can make the
beginning of your essay interesting to your readers:
1. Begin with an attention grabber: this helps to take
the pressure off from the reader; attracts the
attention of the reader; hooks the reader; and gives
him/her some context for the essay. Attention
grabber can be more than one sentence.
2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two,
add one or two more sentences that will lead the
reader from your opening to your thesis statement.
3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.
 Attention Grabbers:
• Startling information- This information must be true
and verifiable (fact) and it does not need to be totally
new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact
that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.
• If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with
a sentence or two of elaboration.
• For example: Patience obviously pays. After standing in
the queue for almost four hours, I contemplated about
leaving the audition hall as many people left. Suddenly,
a man came and announced that they had hired a
number of judges in order to speed up the interviews.
• An Anecdote- is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your
anecdote is short, to the point and relevant to your topic.
This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it
carefully.
• E.g. John felt confused! Many times, he failed to understand
why he does not perform well during examinations when he
is always very attentive in class. Many students who make
noise or play with their phones in class do well. Fortunately,
one day he got the answer. Jane told him that he does not
read his notes throughout the semester, but waits until
examination time because he is over confident.
• Dialogue- An appropriate dialogue does not have to
identify the speakers but the reader must
understand the point you are trying to convey.
• Use only two or three exchanges between speakers
to make your point. Follow the dialogue with a
sentence or two of elaboration.
 Dialogue…
• “You cannot afford two girl friends.” He said to his
friend. “Why not? I have money and a good car. I
have also completed my studies.” He retorted to
his friend. “I think you are misled.” Many young
men these days lead reckless lives because of
money. However, they forget that having more
than one sexual partner can expose them to HIV.
• Other attention grabbers :
• Quote: “No challenge poses a greater threat to future
generations than climate change” (Obama, 2015).
• Definition: A Zombie is a corpse that has been revived by
witchcraft.
• Question: Why have there been no great women artists?

Refer to the LDC 121 Lecture notes for further reading on

this topic
 C. The Body
• In this part, you have a number of paragraphs that discuss
the thesis statement.
• Organize your ideas. Identify issues that you will explore;
structure or outline the issues you will deal with (use an
outline- see next slide).
• Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence:
• the topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph,
and it must be related to the thesis statement in the
introduction. You expand the main idea.
• A topic sentence also helps you to make the transition
from the paragraph before.
Effects of Information and Communication Technologies
on University Education
…The body
• The first paragraph in the body should cover the first
thing your introduction said would address.
• Other sentences in the paragraph develop the topic
sentence with relevant examples, details, evidence,
quotations and references.
• The paragraph finishes with a clincher statement,
and/ or a linking sentence (transition sentence).
• The concluding paragraph of the body should also
contain a clincher statement.
Examples of a clincher statement at
Paragraph level
Paragraph Example 1:
Topic sentence: New York is an exciting city.
Body of evidence: New York has a population of more than 12 million
people with a wide variety of backgrounds plus a massive tourist draw,
attracting visitors from all over the world. Furthermore, there are
innumerable museums, attractions, restaurants and bars.
Clincher statement: It is clear from the infinite variety of entertainment
offerings that New York City is an exciting place.
Paragraph Example 2:
Topic sentence: Pets help combat depression.
Body of evidence: Pets reduce loneliness by providing companionship
and forcing their owners outdoors and out of isolation. When at home,
they act as silent confidants. Pets offer loving affection and unwavering
devotion to their owners. Plus, an unselfconscious, playful pet can be
quite comical at times.
Clincher statement: Pets can be hugely helpful in fighting depression.

• In a paragraph, a clincher statement treats the claim as confirmed

rather than a hypothesis (a starting point requiring further
investigation).
 D. Conclusion
• The conclusion brings closure to the reader.
• It draws together your essay- bringing the points and ideas
from each section, thus summing up the points proving your
final perspective on the topic (recasting your clincher
sentences that you have in the paragraphs). DO NOT restate
them exactly.
Restate the thesis statement if the essay is long, and only
main ideas for short essays.
Refer to primary or secondary source (quotation) that
amplifies your point, or puts it in different perspective.
Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way.
…the conclusion
• Make it clear why those conclusions are important or
significant.
• Final sentence (s) –Clincher, should leave the reader
with something to ponder. It works well if you sum up
your argument briefly – relating it to the attention
grabber or the thesis statement.
• In an Essay, a clincher is a powerful summation, a
memorable point that may linger in your readers’
mind long after finishing reading your content. It can
be a hypothesis, for example with the use of
technique 1, and 4 (see below).
Practice: Look at the following example and
explain the strategy used to end the essay
• Despite the claim that the 50-50 campaign will
increase the number of women in parliament by the
year 2020, the number of women in parliament is
diminishing. This is consistent with KII1 (2018) that
democracy extinguishes/weakens women’s
participation in politics. In order to increase the
presence of women in parliament, a deliberate effort
or affirmative action by the government is a necessity.
Examples: Clincher relating back to thesis statement

• Thesis statement: The incidence of depression has created a

crisis in Malawian society that must be addressed through a
combination of counselling, medicine and social acceptance.
• Clincher technique 1: Make a prediction: If Malawian society
continues to isolate people suffering from depression, these
people will continue to experience difficulties, pain, and
loneliness.
• Clincher technique 2: Offer a recommendation: The Malawian
mental health community should work towards raising
awareness of the impact of depression on society. By making
this clear to community leaders, the mental health community
can be a voice for positive change.
• Clincher technique 3: Suggest opportunities for
further research: Future research should examine the
treatment strategies employed in other countries and
incorporate successful approaches in the struggle
with the disease. By making use of this information,
Malawi could actively support those who live with
depression.
• Clincher technique 4: Ask a thought provoking
rhetorical question: With all that is known about
depression and its devastating impact, why has
Malawi not committed more political and economic
resources to the fight against the disease?
Example: Clincher relating back to grabber

• Example grabber: “No challenge poses a greater

threat to future generations than climate change”
(Obama, 2015).
• Example clincher relating back to grabber: As
Obama (2015) pointed out, with the increasing
threats posed by climate change to our future
generations, Malawi cannot afford to neglect this
issue any longer.
Tips in Writing Essays
1. Focus: understand the question you have been given.
What knowledge or skill are you being required to
demonstrate?
2. Critical reading: reading for strengths and
weaknesses to gain a deeper understanding of a point
of view rather than necessarily accepting the writer’s
position. Whatever the topic, it is likely that there is a
range of views which take different positions, contradict
each other, support each other, use alternative
evidence and refute the positions of others and so on.
3.Draw a sketch of your essay plan
 Outline of ideas/ structure
Effects of Information and Communication Technologies on
University Education
4. Use logical bridges to achieve
a. Paragraph unity: One idea per paragraph.
b. Coherence: forming unified whole (between sentences in a paragraph
(internal) and between paragraphs (external)
Logical bridges- the same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to
sentence
Verbal bridges- restate key ideas in several sentences; pronouns can refer to
nouns in previous sentences
Use linkers: Signposts to the reader about the direction your line of
reasoning is about to take. Link the sentences within the paragraph,
and from paragraph to paragraph.
Continuity: Also, moreover, furthermore, besides, above all, in fact
Chronological order: Firstly, secondly; another, to conclude, last, finally
(chronological)
 Similarities and differences: In comparison, conversely, on
the other hand, however, nonetheless…
Cause/effect: As a result, consequently, hence, therefore…
4. Use synonyms to add flavour e.g. If you used
“beautiful” at first, the second time you can use
“attractive”, “pleasant” etc.
5. Use Pronouns to avoid monotony
6. Use sources: do not simply state your personal
opinion or what is in your head. Use materials read
(secondary sources) or primary sources to give reasons,
evidence, examples and case studies.
7. Be emotionally neutral: stand back and analyse
dispassionately, be an objective onlooker.
8. Use formal English
Practice: Compare these two paragraphs talking about the same
story. What problems can you see?
• In order to assess whether it is necessary to evacuate the villages in
Mposa, three main factors need to be taken into consideration. The
first is the element of safety. According to climate change experts
working on Africa, there is likely to be major flooding within the next
few weeks (Achebe, 2015). Achebe argued that flooding is likely to
destroy the same villages over a radius of 120 miles (Achebe, 2008: 7).

• Mposa is going to flood – it’s gonna take up everything when it

happens. It’s frightening to think how floods would affect such a vast
area. Think of the damage to be caused! People need to start moving
out of the village because, from the way it looks, the flooded area will
be huge. I have heard about how things happen over here.
Finishing Touches
• Check your writing:
• Read and Reread your work, does it make logical
sense?
• Have you run a spell checker or a grammar
checker? These aids cannot catch every error,
but they might catch errors that you have
missed.
• Check the instructions of the assignment- When you
prepare a final draft, you must be sure to follow all
the instructions you have been given.
Have you reached the word limit?
Are your margins correct?
What other information (name, date, etc.) must
you include?
Did you space your lines (double spacing or one
and half)? What about the font size.

For further reading on this topic refer to your LDC 121

teaching notes from Pages 37-51 (Essays)
 PART B
Report Writing
What is a report?

• A report is a formal document that is concise,

written for a variety of purposes.
• Reports are often used to communicate findings or
results of a given or specific task.
• It should be noted that reports are considered to be
legal documents, hence need to be precise,
complete, accurate and difficult to misinterpret.
 Why is a report written?

• To transmit information to teachers: Teachers may

want to evaluate the accuracy and completeness of your
work. Therefore, you need to show that you are thoroughly
acquainted with the material, the information and the
procedures used.
• To report on tests and experiments in the lab.
After conducting an experiment, you are required to report.
• To transmit information to decision makers i.e. experts and
technicians, executives and lay people; in order to help them
make decisions and act on the results presented.
• To communicate the results of research, fieldwork and
other activities; for example, a research report is the only
concrete evidence of your research and the quality of the
research may be judged directly by the quality of the writing
and how well you convey the significance of your findings.
Questions to consider before writing a report

• Who will read the report? ( who is the target audience?)

• In what context will they be reading?
• What do they want to know?
• How should the report be structured?
• What questions will your readers want your communication
to answer?
• What additional information do your readers need?

NB: Reports are assessed based on content, language,

structure and referencing.
Types of reports
• Short lab reports • Technical reports
• Memo and letter reports • Scientific reports
• Research reports • Field study reports
• Research articles • Progress reports
• Financial reports
• Case study reports
• Health and safety
reports.
Formal report versus informal report
Formal Reports Informal Reports
• Formal reports are meticulously • Usually short messages with free
(showing great attention to detail; flowing casual use of language.
very careful and precise)
structured. • Generally the internal report/
memorandum is an example of
• They focus on objectivity and
organization.
an informal report. Other
examples include, a report
• They contain deeper detail. among your peer, or a report for
• The writer must write them in a your small group or team.
style that eliminates factors like
personal pronouns.
 Report formats/ structures
• Reports have a consistent format that will help you to
organize your information clearly.
• Most reports contain the same major sections, although the
names of the sections vary widely, and sometimes it is
appropriate to omit sections and add others.
• If you are submitting a research report or lab report for a
class or to an organization, check for specific requirements
and guidelines before beginning to write your report.
• There is no universal format- follow the recommended
format.
This format should be flexible enough to adjust to your purpose and
audience:

• WHAT was done (the problem you are working on)

• HOW it was done (the procedures used)
• WHAT the results were
• WHAT conclusions can be drawn
• WHAT recommendations can be made
Academic Report Format
Title
• What is your research called?
• It is recommended to use action verbs in your title to
specifically indicate what your report is about, e.g.
Identify, examine, analyze, compare, etc.
• These may come in form of
 Noun phrases, e.g. “Investigating magnetic fields around
electric currents using a Hall Probe.”
Questions e.g. How does zinc react with water?
1.0 Introduction
• The background, problem, purpose (aims and objectives) or scope
of your research or experiment.
• In this section you can refer to the literature to report what is
already known about your question/topic, and if there are any
gaps.
• Use verb infinitives to list the objectives:
e.g. 1. To examine the challenges that farmers face when accessing
subsidized farm inputs.
e.g. 2 To analyze the myths around Covid-19 vaccine.

NB: In most long reports, Section 2.0 is Literature Review- which is

stand alone where you report what is already known about your
topic and reveal any gaps that your study would address. In that
case the numbering has to be consistent.
 2.0 Methodology:
• The methodology section should provide an accurate description of
the materials and procedures used so that others could replicate the
study you conducted.
• If your report involved research activity, you should state, the
methods you used to collet the data e.g. interviews, focus groups, or
document analysis; sample size - how many people participated in
the study; description of the sample-e.g. their sex, education, age,
socio-economic status, etc.; sampling technique- how they were
selected?
• When the study was conducted-details of year, months and any
historical events happening at the moment, e.g. was it during covid-
19 pandemic, or during floods, or during political campaigns, etc.
(Events that could influence the data collected).
3.0 Results and Discussions
• In this section you include presentation of the main
findings. The data collected is presented, discussed and
interpreted.
• It should objectively summarise your findings. You can
use tables, graphs, or figures (pictures, maps) to describe
the most important results.
• Discuss and critically interpret and evaluate your
findings.
• You may need to re-state what your report was aiming to prove
and whether this has been achieved.
• How do your results fit in the context of previous research
(presented in the background).
• You should also assess the accuracy and significance of your
findings. (Why are your results reliable?)
4.0 Conclusions and recommendations
• Summarise the main outcomes of your report and include a
list of specific recommendations as a result of your study.
5.0 References: Using APA style
• For example:
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The Terrifying Future: Contemplating
colour television. San Diego: Halstead.
• It is crucial that you learn how to reference different articles
correctly (e.g. books, book chapters, journal articles,
unpublished work, etc. or sources of information (e.g. key
informants, focus group discussion, telephone
communication etc.). This content was covered in
Communication Skills I (LDC 31101) under “referencing”.
• Include list of Appendices – this may include
questionnaires, focus group interview guide, long
tables for the report, and pieces of information that
can serve as evidence but cannot be included in the
main report.