Cell cycle
• Cell Cycle is an orderly sequence of events by which a growing cell
duplicates its contents and divides into two.
• Most cells divide one or more times during their life time
• Howard & Pelc (1953) studied the details of cell cycle. The entire cell cycle
may be divided into four phases: G1 S, G2 & M. The phases G1, S and C2
are together known as interphase (I-phase) which lasts more than 95% of
the generation time. Though the interphase is called resting phase, it is
actually an active or energy phase which is preparatory to cell division
• A cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during this
time it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
The cell then leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its
division. The resulting cells, known as daughter cells, each enter their own
interphase and begin a new round of the cell cycle
• The period required to complete one cell cycle is called generation time, e.g.,
20 minutes for bacterial cell, 90 minutes in yeast, 19 hours in beans, 20
hours for onion root tip cells, 22 hours for human cells growing in culture etc.
G1 check point
i. G1– phase (= Gap-I or First growth phase or post-mitotic gap phase):
•It is the most variable as well as longest phase of cell cycle during which RNA
and proteins are synthesized. In a specific point of G1 a cell decides whether to
start a new cycle or to withdraw from the cycle. This point is called G1
checkpoint. The cell that leaves the cell cycle to remain in a resting stage is
said to be in Go state or quiscent phase (Lajtlia, 1963).
•Cells that have stopped growing also become arrested at a specific point of G1
(e.g., liver cell, lymphocytes etc.) and the cells contain the amount of DNA
present in G1 period.
•Arrested cells can be induced to divide again. For example, liver cells normally
neither grow nor divide but liver damage rapidly induces them to divide.
Intensive cellular synthesis takes’ place during G1 phase. Mitochondria,
chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum’s, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles
and vesicles are produced.
•The enzymes and substrates necessary for DNA synthesis during S phase are
also synthesised during this phase
ii. S-phase (= synthetic phase):
•S phase is the intermediate phase between G1 and G2 phases. When G1
phase ends, S phase starts. It is a highly specialised phase of interphase and
the word S stands for synthesis. Actually, DNA synthesis takes place in this
phase. Before a cell can divide, it must produce a new copy of its
chromosomes.
•For making a new copy of chromosome it needs both the replication of the
long DNA molecule in each chromosome and the assembly of a new set of
chromosomal proteins onto the DNA to form chromatin or chromatid.
•By its end each chromosome has been copied to two complete chromatids
which remain joined together at their centromeres until the M phase that soon
follows.
iii. G2-phase (= Gap II or Second Growth Phase or Pre-mitotic phase):
•The period from the end of S phase until mitosis is called G2 phase. G2 phase
is usually the shortest part of interphase. In this phase intensive cellular
synthesis occurs. Mitochondria and chloroplasts divide. Energy stores increase.
•Mitotic spindle begins to form. In the interphase there are two control points
such as G1/S and G2/M at which the cell takes a decision on whether to
proceed or not to the next step. Two control points are also called check points.
iv. M-Phase (= Mitotic phase):
•It is the final phase of cell cycle. It starts with nuclear division (Karyokinesis)
and ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis or C-phase). M-phase is of 3
types amitosis, mitosis & meiosis.
Control of Cell Cycle:
•The events of cell cycle are genetically controlled and highly conserved
through evolution. The control mechanism operates in the same manner in
yeast, plants and animals.
•Usually the cell cycle is controlled at three main checkpoints viz., G1/S, G2/M
and spindle checkpoint (late metaphase). Checkpoints are the stages where a
cell cycle may be stopped if the circumstances are not right for cell division.
i. G1/S Checkpoint:
•This checkpoint assesses extracellular growth factors or mitogens and
intracellular nutritional state. Starvation, lack of mitogens can halt the cell cycle
at this point and the cell enters the G0-phase
ii. G2/M Checkpoint:
•It ensures the success of DNA-replication. DNA-dam aging agents can stop
the cycle at this point
iii. Spindle checkpoint:
•It operates at the beginning of anaphase. It assesses whether all chromosomes are
attached to the spindle or not
•Passage through the above checkpoints is controlled by specific protein
1. kinases that take part in phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. For the activity of
protein kinases a number of protein stimulators are required which are called cyclins.
The protein kinases are thus called Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks) or mitosis
promoting factor (MPF)
2. Cdk is an enzyme that adds negatively charged phosphate groups to other
molecules in a process called phosphorylation. Through phosphorylation, Cdks signal
the cell that it is ready to pass into the next stage of the cell cycle
3. Cyclins are named such because they undergo a constant cycle of synthesis and
degradation during cell division
•Cyclin D: (AKA G1 cyclin): helps in progression of the cell through G1. and into S
phase.
• Cyclin B: (mitotic cyclin) regulates cell progression through prophase and
metaphase (primarily through mitotic spindle regulation). Must degrade for
the cell to trigger anaphase.
• Cyclin A: initiates DNA replication is S phase and prepares the centrosome
for mitosis in G2.
• Cyclin E: (AKA S cyclin): helps the DNA prepare for replication
