Dr.
Muhanad Hassan
Sudan Institute For Nuclear
Technology Research
(MINT)
Metals and Alloys
NDT deals with metal and alloy-important to
understand its structure
Metal comprises of atoms
Each atoms is bonded together by METALLIC
BOND
What is METALLIC BOND
Most metal have few outer orbital electron
Outer orbital electron overlapped and totally
shared by other atom forming electron gas, act
like glues
BONDING
Na Cl Na Cl
C
C C C
Na Cl
Na Cl
C
Na Cl Na Cl Covalent bonding
in diamond
Sodium chloride
ionic bonding + + + +
+ + + +
Metallic bond
Metal and Alloy
Properties of metal closely related to the
atomic arrangement
Electrical Conductor: due to free movement
of electron in electrical field
Heat conductor: free electron can transfer
thermal energy.
MB is not specific-so different metal can be
joined
MB is non-directional
•When metal heat-atoms vibrate increasingly-
manifest as expansion
•Continuous heating cause MB to break at
melting point, now atom free to move
•More heating cause more melt but
temperature remain steady, until melting is
complete (energy is known as latent heat
•When cooled the reverse happen
•Atom begin to take up a specific positons to
form CRYSTAL
• If centre of atoms are connected we
will construct space lattice.
• The smallest volume of space lattice
represents the positions of atoms wrt
each other is known as unit cell
• Unit cell of most metals are BCC, FCC,
hexagonal, tetragonal etc
• What is FCC, BCC, etc
Crystal structure of metal
BCC FCC
Plan
tetragonal
hexagonal view
TYPICAL STRESS-
STRAIN CURVE
U OP-LINEAR PORTION OBEY
X
HOOKES LAW
UYP
E-ELASTIC LIMIT
E
P LYP
NORMALLY P=E
E-UYP: PLASTIC
STRESS
DEFORMATION OCCUR
BEYOND UYP: EXTENSION
OCCUR AT REDUCED
SPECIMEN FOR
TENSILE TEST STRESS UP TO LYP
U: TENSILE STRENGTH
O (HIGHEST STRESS THE
STRAIN METAL CAN WITHSTAND
X-FRACTURE POINT
Properties of Material
Physical properties: constants associated with the
atomic structure of materials (e.g. density, melting
point, cohesive strength, etc)
Mechanical properties: properties that reveals it
elastic and inelastic behaviour (e.g. modulus of
elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, etc)
Chemical properties: properties that describe the
reaction between a material with other materials
Processing properties: properties that describe the
ability of a material to be processed (e.g. weldability,
castability, machinability, bending)
Properties of metal
Elasticity: the ability of metal to strain under
load and then return to its original size and
shape when unloaded
Strength: the ability of metal to resist
changing its shape or size when external
force is applied
Hardness: the ability of metal to resist being
permanently deformed
Brittleness: properties of metal whereby it will
not deformed plastically under load.
Properties of metals
Ductility: a property that allows a metal to
deform permanently when loaded in tension
Malleability: abilty of metal to deform
permanently when loaded under compression
Notch toughness (impact strength): ability of
metal to resist rupture from impact loading
when there is a notch or stress raiser
presents.
Conductivity: ability of metal to conduct
electricity
Grain
Under microscope metal comprise
of grain
How grains are formed
Certain atom form a unit cell and
solidified (called crystal)
Other atoms take up position
alongside this crystal.-the grain
grows
Growth are interfered by other
grain growth-forming grain
boundary
Alloy
Metal rarely exist in pure form
Other materials are added to modify
properties
Alloy=pure metal +additive
Ferrum or iron is pure metal
Steel is iron+carbon+nickel+cobalt
+chromium+vanadium etc etc
Steel Making Process
•Iron ore + coke + limestone
fed to top of blast furnace
•Coke burns, heat created
molten metal trickle to bottom
•Limestone gather impurities
to it, melts and trickle to
bottom but remain on top
called SLAG
•Most slag gone but some
remain
•Slag form discontinuities at a
later stage.
Steel Making process
Molten iron then poured to
mould to form PIG IRON-
OTHER
dirty contain nonmetallic MOLTEN MATERIALS
inclusion IRON
PIG IRON is the first
product in the steel making
process
Pig iron is brittle-not so
useful
POROSITY
Other elements were added
to make better quality steel
and process done in open MOULD
hearth furnace
some nonmetallic inclusion INGOT
remain
Steel Making process
Inclusion rise to upper part
because it is lighter some trapped
OTHER
before reaching the surface MOLTEN MATERIALS
Inclusion is irregular IRON
Normally oxide & sulphide
inclusion (low melting point-
harmful during hot working and
welding) and brittle-can act as
stress raiser
POROSITY
Porosity also formed as a result of
trapped gas bubble as it rises
Porosity is round MOULD
AT THIS STAGE INCLUSION AND
INGOT
POROSITY WERE FORMED AS
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
Production of an ingot from pig iron
Melting Layer by layer Final product with The use of hot-top
metal solidification dipped surface for slab production
Chopped
here
Formation of Formation of
The use of hot top to Chopped bloom
shrinkage pipe
avoid piping or billet
Segregation
Refer to concentration of certain alloying
elements at certain area of the ingot
Can occur due to freezing at a range of
temperature
First metal to solidify has different
composition with last metal to solidify
Cause different localized mechanical
properties
segregation
Columnar grain
when metal solidifies atom
arrange themselves to A B
form crystals
first solidification occur at C Equiaxed grain
the mould wall-equiaxed Chilled at the centre
crystal were formed- crystal
CHILL LAYER
When metal poured
thermal gradient exist
across the mould
columnar grain
AB no thermal gradient
AC exist thermal gradient
Columnar grain
Crystal grow opposite to thermal flow direction
Crystal 1 &2 grow inward
Crystal 3 tend to grow inward but stop by
grain boundary
Material consist COLUMNAR GRAIN
if temperature at the centre remain high-grain
meet to form plane of weakness
Columnar grain
if the temperature low- first chill crystal
formed-temperature a the centre reach
temperature for solidification-thus crystallize
randomly
consider casting at high temperature using
sand mold(poor conductivity)-chill layer is
formed-high T increase the T of mold above
solidification T-chill remelt-subsequent
solidification is slow, T gradient is small-consist
of large equiaxed grain
Rolling process
Reduction of thickness of
ingot by passing hot metal
through two rolls Rollers
Can be done at hot (above
recrystallization
temperature) or cold
(below recrystallization Rolling
temperature) direction
Result-grain recrystallize,
finer (stronger) and
elongated in rolling
direction
Anisiotropy
Rolling Process
Product less
thickness and longer
Bloom (square or
close to square end
section
>150mmX150mm
Slab (width 3 X
thickness)
Furter rolling
produce plate,
sheet, strip
Rolling process
Defects in Rolling
•in slab nonmetallic inclusion
spread out in all direction but
mainly in rolled direction
•flattened inclusion called
LAMINATION
•porosity also cause LAMINATION
•in some materials e.g. aluminum
porosity disappeared-material
fused and joined
•LAMINATION is located at the
centre lamination
Rolling Defects in Billet
Rollers -
piping
Rolling What happen to
direction defects when rolled to
billet?
Pipe become smaller ,
round and longer
Retain its name as PIPE
SURFACE DEFECTS IN
ROLLED PRODUCT
SURFACE CRACK BECOME
SEAM
BEFORE AFTER
ROLLED ROLLED
AFTER
BEFORE ROLLED
ROLLED
Formation of Stinger from
inclusion
