Unit 2:Writing Effective Paragraphs

Definition:
Nature and structure of a Paragraph
Size
Length
Layout
Components

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Features of a paragraph

Definition: A paragraph is group of related sentences

Size: 80-100 words or 5 to 7 sentences
Lay out: indentation, Capitalization, spelling…
Parts: Topic, topic Sentence; Detail; Conclusion
Types:
Narrative
Descriptive
Exposition
Argumentation
Persuasive

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What is a Paragraph?
Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not
random sentences. A paragraph is a group of
sentences organized around a central topic. In fact,
the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on
one idea. A solidly written paragraph takes its
readers on a clear path, without detours. Master the
paragraph, and you’ll be on your way to writing
“gold-star” essays, term papers, and stories.

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PLANNING A PARAGRAPH
When planning a paragraph, follow these steps.
1.Choose a topic or make sure you understand the
topic given.
2.prepare a topic sentence
3.list the points that help to develop the central
idea. If possible compare your list of points with
that of a partner and discuss any difference.

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4.check your final list and cross out any point not
directly relevant.
5.Arrange the points in a logical order
6.draft your paragraph ,i.e., put the ideas into
sentences linked with appropriate transitional
(cohesive)words.
7.Read through and check your work. If possible,
get a partner to also check your work. This time,
concentrate on correcting any language
mistakes.
8.write out your final draft.

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 Components of a paragraph
1. Topic Sentences
2. Detail(Body)
3. Conclusions

A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five

sentences: the topic sentence, three supporting
sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the
secrets to paragraph writing lay in four essential
elements, which when used correctly, can make a
okay paragraph into a great paragraph.
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 1.The topic or theme is the subject discussed or to
be discussed, whereas the title or heading is the
summary of the subject matter presented in
concise language usually with a single word or
phrase.
2. The Topic sentence is the one that contains the
central or controlling idea of a paragraph, i.e. it
points out the most important aspect of the topic
to be discussed and may state the writer’s view or
attitude towards it.

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3. Body of the paragraph
You develop the aspect of the topic sentence

4. Conclusion
 Summarize
 Restatement/Give remarks/recommendations

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Elements of a paragraph
1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic
sentence. Every paragraph has one single, controlling
idea that is expressed in its topic sentence, which is
typically the first sentence of the paragraph. A
paragraph is unified around this main idea, with the
supporting sentences providing detail and discussion.
In order to write a good topic sentence, think about
your theme and all the points you want to make.
Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it
as your topic sentence

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Element ….
2: Order. Order refers to the way you organize your
supporting sentences. Whether you choose
chronological order, order of importance, or another
logical presentation of detail, a solid paragraph always
has a definite organization. In a well-ordered
paragraph, the reader follows along easily, aided by
the pattern you’ve established. Order helps the reader
grasp your meaning and avoid confusion.

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Elements ….
3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your
writing understandable. Sentences within a paragraph
need to connect to each other and work together as a
whole. One of the best ways to achieve coherency is
to use transition words. These words create bridges
from one sentence to the next. You can use transition
words that show order (first, second, third); spatial
relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in
addition, in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph, using a
consistent verb tense and point of view are important
ingredients for coherency.

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Elements ….
4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is
well-developed. If all sentences clearly and sufficiently
support the main idea, then your paragraph is
complete. If there are not enough sentences or
enough information to prove your thesis, then the
paragraph is incomplete. Usually three supporting
sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and
concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be
complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of
the paragraph should summarize your main idea by
reinforcing your topic sentence.

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Types of paragraphs
1. Descriptive (Shape, color, size, height)
2. Narrative (events in series; chronological age
Biographies and autobiographies)
3. Expository: Explanation ; knowledge/information
4. Argumentative: (logic, reason)
5.Persuasive(sometimes uses false premises)

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Descriptive Paragraph
Description communicates the main idea or
impression you are communicating to the
reader. By describing the setting, people and
objects in your story, you will establish
context and create an emotional response
that enhances your point. Close observation is
the first key to communicating a main
impression. Selecting the essential
descriptive details is the second key.

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Selecting the essential descriptive details is
the second key. Too much description and the
point is lost in the details. Too little
description and the point is not clear enough.
Thus, when your purpose in writing is to help
a reader visualize an object, a scene, or a
person, you are writing description. A
descriptive paragraph creates a vivid picture
in words of a person, an object, or a scene.

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Example: 1. Descriptive paragraphs
Britain’s falling birth-rate
The birth-rate dropped sharply recently to its lowest-ever figure
of 600.000 births a year. The average birth-rate before the first World
War was around one million births a year. During the war years, 1914 -
1918 the birth-rate decreased dramatically, but at 800,000 births a year
was still higher than the present rate. With the post-war baby boom in
the early 1920s, the birth-rate shot up to its highest-ever rate of
1,200,000 births a year, but by 1925 had declined to about 700,000
births a year. It remained at this rate during the war years 1939 – 1945,
but rose steeply again in the post- war years to around one million
births a year in 1948. There was a sharp drop in the mid 50s to
800.000 births, followed by a marked rise to a peak of one million in
1965. Since then the birth-rate has been declining steadily until today,
at its present level, it is lower than the death-rate for the first time in
peacetime.

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Example 2: Descriptive paragraphs
My first order of business when I moved to New
York was to find accommodation. I needed to find a place
to rent as soon as possible. My first choice was to get an
apartment. Unfortunately, I quickly found out that the
only area I could afford was an hour's subway ride from
downtown. I then decided to look for a studio in a
neighborhood closer to work. I spoke with a number of
landlords, but wasn't able to find anything. Then, I
decided to go to a real estate agent for help. The agent was
very helpful, but the fee was a full month's rent! I agreed
and the agent showed me a few places. The first was in the
basement and had very bad lighting. The next place was a
furnished studio that was very cluttered. The last place
was on a quiet block with parking in the back. I signed the
lease immediately.

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Example 3: Descriptive
The Sun was setting behind me as I came over
the hill. From the top of the hill, I could see a village
lying below me, half in and half out of the slanting
sunlight. Stone cottages were lining a small stream in
the middle. On the other side at the end of row of
houses, was a towered church with a cross shining
against the evening light. Behind the church, high up,
a straw biding machine was still working noisily in a
square of wheat like an old loom. Beyond this, the
hills continued again, folding and unfolding in to the
northern distance, yellow with corn, and drab-green
with the sun scorched pasture.

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Write a descriptive paragraph on the following topics:
1. My village
2. My favourite holiday
3. A famous person you know

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Expository Paragraphs
• When you read your textbook, the newspaper,
magazine articles, or any other types of publications,
you are reading expository writing. When you write
answers for an essay test, you use the expository form.
• In an expository paragraph, you give information.
You explain a subject, give directions, or show how
something happens. In expository writing, linking
words like first, second, then, and finally are usually
used to help readers follow the ideas.

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Exposition is a type of writing which explains an idea,
subject or phenomenon. This is usually done by using
a combination of all or some of the following methods
of developing ideas: Cause and effect, Classification,
illustration, identification, analysis, definition and
comparison and contrast. Usually in exposition, the
most important of these methods are cause and effect
and analysis .

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Example 1: Exposition

Causes of the food shortage are numerous.

Besides rapid population increase, these causes
include bad weather, poor harvest and lack of
fertilizers. Other contributing factors are lack of funds
and difficulties in transporting the food from its
source to hungry mouths. In 1974 alone, over 10
million people most of them children 5 years of age
and under-perished as a direct result of having too
little food to eat on account of these conditions.

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Example 2: Exposition
The road strike has immobilized the city.
Workers could not get home for many hours. Some
had made plans to stay overnight with friends who
lived near their offices. There were mile long waiting
lines for buses, and tempers were short. The railroad
engineers thought they deserved more money for
their work. And the way things were going, it seemed
that only a significant increase in workers’ salaries
would get the trains rolling again.

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Exercise I:
The next passage is about mothers-in-law in the west.
Without reading further, discuss in groups what you
would expect to be said about this topic. Consider the
attitudes to others-in-law in your society. List the main
points that arise from your discussion.

Read the passage and see how closely what is said in it

compared with the points you have listed as a group.
Compare the attitudes to mother-in-law found in this
passage with those found in your society.

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Mothers-in-Law
The mother-in-law is a defamed person. Surprisingly enough, she is defamed
for the very reason she could be praised. Then, why is the mother-in-law
defamed? It is easy to give three specific reasons, each actually a very good
reason for heaping praise on the head of this much reviled person. First of all,
she is defamed because she easily finds fault with the mate of her off-spring.
No first-year bride or bridegroom wants to accept her criticism. This is
because in the early bloom of marriage, one not only avoids finding fault in
one’s mate but also avoids those who wish to aid in this unpleasant task.
Secondly, she gives advice on the care and feeding of husbands or wives, and
certainly of children, on buying furniture, on handling money-on practically
everything on which advice from one outside the tight circle of the new family
is not wanted. And, thirdly, she comes to visit. But, mother-in-law, God bless
her, finds fault with her mate only because she wants to improve him or her,
gives advice because she has the requisite experience for doing so, and comes
to visit so that she can perform the functions of critic and adviser. If those
reasons were clearly understood by the young in marriage, the defamation
would soon cease-even though the visit would, I suppose, continue to seem
overlong

(F.L.Bergmann)

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Exercise 2
 Look at the words underlined and consider their meanings within the passage. What
other similar words could have been used?

 Summarize in one or two sentences what you consider to be the attitude to mothers-
in-law of people in the West as shown in the passage?

 Complete these notes illustrating the development of the ideas in the passage.(Use
brief notes and avoid coping whole sentences from the passage..)

 Introduction (including the topic sentence)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….
 Reasons for defamation:

a)…………………………………………………………………………………………………… b)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
c)…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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3. Value of mothers-in-law:

a)……………………………………………………………………………………………………
b)…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c)……………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………............................................................................

 Now, write a paragraph. You may first discuss and plan it in your
groups. Write the paragraph on: EITHER” Mothers-in-law in my
society”

OR Select another position or relationship that is often

maligned and misjudged and describe it in a similar way.

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Methods of Analysis
Cause and Effect:
There are many causes that make writing a research paper
difficult.
Classification:
Scientists divide living things into two main groups .
Method of Analysis:
Method of Illustration:
The ability to write well organized concise paragraph is
essential to student’s success in almost all university
courses.

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Example of informative paragraph
This type of a paragraph might explain a process, describe a category,
or provide a long definition of something that is complicated.

English is the language spoken throughout most of Canada, but in

Quebec, the most populated province, and in areas near Quebec,
French is the first language. Because of this, Canadians recognize
French and English as official languages that are used in business and
government. Many people are bilingual and easily go from French to
English and vice versa when speaking with tourists. The farther west
you go, the more English you'll hear, but it is common to meet people
throughout the country who are familiar with both languages.

This paragraph focuses on facts and avoids sounding judgmental.

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Comparison-contrast paragraph
We usually arrange our information through
comparison and contrast when we want to show the
similarities and/or differences between two things.

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Example of a comparison-contrast paragraph .
There are many advantages to purchasing fresh fruit and vegetables
as an alternative to popular processed food items at your local grocer store.
While potato chips and donuts are tasty and frozen food is convenient, a habit
of eating food prepared in a factory leads to overall poor nutrition and can
cause bad health. These ill effects result in increased visits to the dentist or
the family physician. A bag of apples might cost more than a bag of Cheetos,
but savings in health costs far outweigh the immediate savings at the cash
register. Besides, pound for pound, fresh food often turns out to be cheaper
than packaged food. Many people forget that when they buy something that is
packaged or frozen, they are also buying the packaging which lures shoppers
into buying the product. Commercials on television successfully convince
consumers that the decisions to buy packaged food is logical, but facts about
nutrition and value prove otherwise.

This paragraph wants you to accept the idea that fresh food is better than
processed food, and it lists some examples of that. This could easily be one
paragraph in an essay.

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Exercise
1. Write a paragraph showing a contrast between
children of fifty years ago and the children of today.
2. Write a paragraph that shows a comparison
between your high school and university life.

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Cause and effect paragraph

Of the many methods of developing ideas used in

exposition, cause and effect is the one. This method
helps to develop a statement by giving an account of
the causes and effects of an event or situation.

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An example of a cause and effect paragraph
If I had listened to my teachers who encouraged
me stay in college, I would be in a much better financial
position today. Instead, when I was nineteen, I dropped out of
college and drifted from one job to another. At first, It felt good
to have money while friends of mine who remained in college
were always broke, but soon I realized my mistake. Friends of
mine who graduated with degrees in business and science were
suddenly making three or four times what I was making as a
manager of a shoe store. In addition, I began to feel as though
my education was incomplete. Something was missing from my
life. Gradually, the consequences of my short-term thinking
became evident; therefore, At the age of twenty-five, I returned
to college to pursue a degree in business administration.

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Exercise

Write a cause and effect paragraph on one of the

following topics:
1. Why do students chew chat?
2. What is the effect of smoking?
3. What do you think are the factors that cause difficulty
in writing sound paragraphs?

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Argument
An argument is a process of reasoning in which a
series of facts and judgments are arranged coherently
to establish a conclusion for or against a proposition,
opinion or a course of action. Any argument, however
complex, expresses a relationship between one
assertion and another. The first assertion may serve as
a reason for the second. For instance, if I say, “Addis
Ababa entrance requirements are stiff; therefore, you
have to work very hard to join the university, “I am
making an argument. The second statement is a
conclusion based upon the first statement.

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Guideline to Write Argumentative Paragraph
One way of presenting an argument in a paragraph is as follows.
First of all, identify your own position on a certain issue. Then,
State the opposing point of view
 State your opponents justification for this point of view
Criticize this opposing point of view
Present your own/an alternative point of view
Support your point of view with reasons/evidences
Notice that in this approach to developing an argument, you
start by presenting the point of view you wish to criticize,
you present your own point of view, with supporting
evidence or reasons.
It is important to support a proposition; otherwise it can
easily be criticized, refuted or disbelieved. Study the
following example carefully:

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 Sample Paragraph
Some people argue that foreign tourists should be encouraged to use local
transport to visit tourist sites. They argue that local transport is cheap and it is the
best way for tourists to experience local culture. However, my own view is that
this is inadvisable for several reasons. Firstly, since tourists are unlikely to speak
the local language, they will not be able to communicate with other passengers .
Another problem is that they may be a target for thieves. In addition; local buses
are often crowded and uncomfortable. They are also inconvenient because they
run irregularly, they are slow and they sometimes breakdown. I would argue that
tourists should use a four wheel drive vehicle hired from a tour company in order
to visit tourist sites. This would allow them to travel in reliable transport,
accompanied by a driver, who would also act as a guide and interpreter. Thus,
they would be able to visit any tourist site safely, comfortably and without
problems of communication.

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Classwork and an Assignment
Writing an argumentative paragraph.
Write an argumentative paragraph of about 100 words on any
one of the following propositions or topics
1.Education is not essential to become a successful business
person.
2.Getting married before the age of 25 has many advantages
on later life.
3.Using PowerPoint has negative effect on learning.
4.Special privilege and support should be given to female
Freshman students more than male students of the same level.
5.Some people say , “Learning is burning”. I agree/disagree

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Persuasion
Persuasion is another form of communication the ultimate
goal of which is to convince or make your audience(s)
accept an issue or idea through reason and make them act
accordingly. You are more likely to persuade an audience if
your delivery is convincing. Persuading is problem solving.
Persuading is influencing; your audience is a key to success
not only in social situations but also in business
environments.
Persuasion specifically focuses on convincing someone
through the force of reason and appeal to prejudice, deep
seated convictions, hope and fear, etc. With the view to
making the audience believes a set of ideas or situations
and act accordingly

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•Clearly defined proposition or thesis statement (clarity).Here you may ask
yourself:” What am I trying to do?" With any persuasive message, you are trying to
get someone to do something that he or she might not normally do without your
influence.
•Pertinent facts about the proposition (credibility).Here you may ask yourself:
“What do I need to know to make my message effective? “You will need to find out
certain things before you begin to write your message.
•Development and presentation of the issue (deductively or inductively).Here you
may ask yourself “In how many ways can I approach each section of the message?
For each section, there are different ways to get the receiver’s attention, build up
interest and desire, and induce some action.
•feedback

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The annex of the city hospital, the mayor argue, should be closed
at once. The building, he said, was in poor physical condition, and
the city couldn’t afford to make urgently needed repairs to roof,
floors, and walls. Also, he continued, doctors on the annex staff
had complained that surgical facilities were dangerously obsolete.
Visitors to annex, the mayor continued, could no longer reach it
easily by public transportation, because bus line serving the annex
area run too infrequently. The annex, the mayor concluded, was a
relic of an earlier time and should be allowed to retire.

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1.Statement of proposition_______________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2.Pertinentfacts:___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
________________________________
3.Conclusion______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

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Read the paragraph below and write out the topic and the topic sentence.
What is to be done?
Although most of African compatriots are poor, our continent is
potentially extremely rich. Our mineral resources, which are being
exploited with foreign capital only to enrich foreign investors, range
from gold to uranium and petroleum. Our forests contain some of the
finest woods to be grown anywhere. Our cash crops include cocoa,
coffee, rubber, tobacco and cotton. As for power, which is an important
factor in any economic development, Africa contains over 40% of the
total potential water power of the world, as compared with about 10% in
Europe, and 13% in North America. Yet, so far, less than 1% has been
developed. This is the reason why we have in Africa the paradox of
poverty in the midst of plenty, and scarcity in the midst of abundance.
Let us therefore brace ourselves, plan intelligently and work hard, for
this is the only way to break out of this paradox.
(Adapted from K. Nkrumah, taken from a Collection of essays.)

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 Example:
Going to college can be expensive. First, college tuition and room and
board can cost anywhere from $2,000 to more than $10,000 per
semester. Other expenses make going to college even more expensive.
For example, books typically cost between $100 and $500 each term.
Second, materials are also very expensive. Paper, notebooks, writing
utensils, and other supplies required often cost more at the college
bookstore than at any local discount department store. For instance, a
package of notepaper costing $2 at a discount store might cost $5 at a
college bookstore. Finally, there are all kinds of special fees added
onto the bill at registration time. A college student might have to pay
a $50 insurance fee, a $20 activity fee, a $15 fee to the student
government association and anywhere from $500 to $100 for parking.
There is another fee if a student decides to add or drop classes after
registration. The fees required to attend college never seem to end.

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