Feed Resources and Management

Course code: ANPR 551

Credit hour: 3 (2+1)

Ahmed Hassen
Assistant Professor
Debre Berhan University
 1. Introduction
Potential Uses of Forages Crops and Their Role
More feed, better quality lead to reliable production
Higher carrying capacity
Increase the weight gains, wool or milk production
Improved calving and lambing
Finish stock in less time
Improve ground cover, soil fertility and structure – less
erosion and fewer weeds
Cheaper than buying land to expand production
Restore degraded land, salty areas
Potential Uses of Forages Crops and Their Role …

Improve farm profitability

The key to sustainable farming
Benefits for the environment
More complete vegetative cover and improved soil structure
Reduced soil erosion
Improved air and water quality
Encourages regeneration of native species
Increased plant vigor and production
Pasture benefits of cropping rotations
 Definition of important terms related to forage production

• Aftermath: Residual or regrowth of forage produced after

haying or grazing.

• Agroforestry: Agroforestry is where trees and shrubs

producing browse or forage pods are integrated with cropping
systems.

• Annual crops: Plants that germinate, establish, flower, set seed

and die in one growing season.
Biennial crop: A plant that completes its life cycle in two years.
A true biennial is a plant that germinates, establishes and
produces only vegetation in its first year and then produces
vegetation and seed and dies in its second year.

Bloat: Bloat is a potentially lethal expansion of the stomach in

ruminant animals, which can occur after they have eaten large
quantities of legume forage.

Bulk forage: The cheapest ingredients, and the ones that form
the largest part of the dairy cow’s ration, are the bulk forages.
These are plant feeds with high fiber contents such as fresh grass,
maize thinning, weeds, hay, straw and stovers.

Browse: Leaf and twig growth of shrubs, trees, and other non-
herbaceous vegetation available for animal consumption.
Crop by-product: Crop by-products are fibrous plant materials
left behind after harvesting human food crops and are available
in many areas where crop agriculture is practiced

Dry matter: Dry matter is the percentage of the forage that is

not water. Dry-matter content is important because all animal
requirements are made on a dry-matter basis.

Fodder: Forages that are specially grown for feeding to

livestock, such as Napier grass or fodder legumes, are usually
referred to as fodders.

Fodder banks: Fodder banks refer to fodder left standing in the

field to be used during times of feed scarcity. They can be used
all year but are mostly used during dry seasons.
Forage: A forage crop is one grown for pasture, hay or silage.
The vegetative plant material, including stems, leaves and heads,
used for livestock feed. Grasses are often developed for
suitability for forage, etc.

Hay: Dried grass or herbaceous legumes prepared as a way of

conserving grass for feeding to cattle.

Intercropping: Intercropping is where crops for human

consumption are under-sown or intercropped with forage
legumes.

Legume: Legumes are plant in the Fabaceae family. This family

is made up of broad leaf forbs that have a symbiotic relationship
with rhizobia bacteria, which fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Herbaceous: Nonwoody

Pastureland: Land devoted to the production of indigenous or

introduced forage for harvest primarily by grazing. Pastureland
can include some grassland

Rangeland: Land on which the indigenous vegetation is

predominantly grasses, grass-like plants, forbs, or shrubs and is
managed as a natural ecosystem. If plants are introduced, they are
managed as indigenous species. Rangelands include natural
grasslands, savannas, shrub lands, many deserts, tundra, alpine
communities, marshes and meadows

Grassland: Land on which the vegetation is dominated by

grasses (Pastureland, Rangeland).
Paddock: A grazing area that is a subdivision of a grazing
management unit, and is enclosed and separated from other areas by
a fence

Carrying capacity: The maximum stocking rate that will achieve

a target level of animal performance, in a specified grazing method,
that can be applied over a defined time period without deterioration
of the ecosystem.

Lignin: Undigestible plant component, giving the plant cell wall

its strength and water impermeability. Lignin also reduces
digestibility.
Ley Farming: Ley farming is where crops for human
consumption are rotated with forage legumes.

Nitrogen Fixation: The symbiotic relationship between rhizobia

bacteria and a legume where the bacteria form a nodule on a root
or root hair and convert atmospheric nitrogen available in the air
between the soil particles into a nitrogen from that is usable by
the plant.

Palatability: The acceptability of a plant to the livestock grazing

or consuming it. Given a choice, livestock will find one forage
species or parts of the same forage more palatable than another.

Seed Bank: Un-germinated seeds present in the soil, generally

from forage crops that have produced seed that shattered onto
the ground.
Silage: A way of preserving grass and other materials for
feeding to cattle in which the grass is fermented.

Stocking Rate: The number of livestock per area of pasture,

usually expressed as animals or animal unit per hectare, but may
be expressed as hectares per animal unit.

Standing hay: Grass or other crops left standing in the ground

to dry naturally and cut or grazed as needed.

Tethering: Tethering restricts the cow to a grazing area by tying

it with a rope to a peg.
 Influence of Climate on Forage Productivity, Forage Quality
and Animal Output
Adequate animal nutrition is essential for high rates of gain, milk
production, efficient reproduction, and adequate profits
Forage quality varies greatly among and within forage crops
Nutritional needs vary among and within animal species and
classes
Producing suitable quality forage requires knowing the factors that
affect forage quality, then exercising management accordingly
Analyzing forages for nutrient content can be used to determine
whether the feed contain adequate nutrient or not
 What is forage quality?
• Forage quality can be defined as the extent to which forage has the
potential to produce a desired animal response
Factors that influence forage quality include the following; -
Palatability; Animals select one forage over another based on smell,
feel, and taste
• Palatability may be influenced by texture, leafiness, fertilization, dung
or urine patches, pest infestation, or compounds that cause forage to
taste sweet, sour, salty
• High-quality forages are generally highly palatable.
Intake; - How much will they eat? Animals must consume adequate
quantities of forage to perform well. The higher the palatability and
forage quality, the higher the intake.
Digestibility; Digestibility varies greatly
Immature, leafy plant tissues may be 80 to 90% digested, while
less than 50% of mature, stemmy material is digested.
Nutrient content;
Living forage plants usually contain 70 to 90% water
To analyses, forage nutrient content, usually expressed on a Dry
matter (DM) basis
Forage DM can be divided into two main categories:
1. Cell contents (the non-structural parts of the plant tissue such as
protein, sugar, and starch);
2. Structural components of the cell wall (cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin)
Availability of Anti-quality factors;
Various compounds may be present in forage that can lower
animal performance, cause sickness, or even result in death
Such compounds include tannins, nitrates, alkaloids, cyano
glycosides, and myco toxins
The presence of these elements depend on the plant species
present, environmental conditions, and animal sensitivity
High-quality forages must not contain harmful levels of anti-
quality components
 Factors affecting forage quality
Species differences
Legumes vs. grasses: Legumes produce higher quality forage
than grasses, due to legumes have less fiber
Growing legumes with grasses is improve forage quality
Alfalfa, at early bloom, had 16% CP and timothy with 9.5%
Applying nitrogen fertilizer to grasses can make their CP
comparable to legume
Timothy had considerably higher levels of neutral detergent fiber
(NDF) than alfalfa
Higher NDF levels and a slower rate of fiber digestion for grass
forages results in lower voluntary intake compared with legumes
Temperature;
Plants grown at high temperatures generally produce lower
quality forage than plants grown under cooler temperatures
Forage lower in quality if produced in a warm region rather
than a cool region
For example, in one study annual ryegrass grown at
temperatures of 50° to 59°F produced forage made up of
59% leaf material, but only 36% leaf matter when grown at
68° to 77°F.
Maturity stage;
Maturity stage at harvest is important factor determining
forage quality
Forage quality declines with advancing maturity.
Maturity at harvest also influences forage consumption
As plants mature and become more fibrous, forage intake
drops dramatically
Intake potential decreases and NDF concentration increases as
plants age increases. This is because NDF is more difficult to
digest than the non-fiber components of forage
Leaf-to-stem ratio;
Reduced leaf-to-stem ratio is cause for forage quality decline
Leaves are higher in quality than stems, and the proportion of
leaves in forage declines as the plant matures
The oldest portion of alfalfa stems had less than 10% CP
compared with 24% in alfalfa leaves
Older alfalfa stem tissue was considerably lower in quality than
young stem tissue.
Grass–legume mixtures: -
Grass-legume mixtures generally have higher CP concentration
as well as lower fiber concentration than pure grass stands
Fertilization practice;
Fertilization of grasses with nitrogen often substantially
increases yield and also generally increases CP levels
Fertilizing alfalfa and other legumes with nitrogen to improve
quality is not recommended

Variety effects;
The variety ‘Coastcross-1’ Bermuda grass is about 12% higher
in digestibility than ‘Coastal’ Bermuda grass
Later maturing varieties tend to be slightly lower in
digestibility
Harvesting and storage effects;
Leaf shatter, plant respiration, and leaching by rainfall during
field drying of hay reduce forage quality, particularly legumes
Late rain damage reduced alfalfa CP levels slightly and
digestibility dramatically
NDF and ADF levels increased sharply due to rainfall damage
Rainfall during curing damages legume leaves most than grass
Alfalfa hay exposed to drying, more than 60% of the total
losses of DM, CP, digestible DM were related with the leaves
Rain during field drying has less impact on forage quality of
grasses than legumes
Quality losses also occur due to microbial activity during
storage
In high rainfall areas, losses can be large for round bales
stored outside, due to weathering of the outer layers.
In a study in Louisiana, baled ryegrass stored outdoors on the
ground lost 40% of the initial DM during 1 year of storage.
Protected bales lost an average of 10% of the initial DM
during the same period. Refusal during feeding to mature
cows ranged from only 1% for inside-stored bales to 22% for
bales stored outside on the ground.
Drying and storage conditions
 Forage development strategies
General Forage Development
Overgrazing of native pasture is one of the most serious
problems
Pastures are grazed so intensively that plant vigor is reduced,
less palatable
Soil erosion and reduced soil fertility result in low feed
availability
The problem is particularly severe in sloping areas.
The dry season is the time when the problems of forage
quantity and quality need special attention
Crop residues are the major available feed at this time
During the dry season many animals become
undernourished and prone to illness
More severe in the case of drought oxen, as they require
good feeding at the time of ploughing

Coping with feed scarcity

Points to be considered during forage development
Reduce uncontrolled grazing, especially on the steeper
slopes
Place a greater emphasis on soil conservation
Cut and carry the forage where possible instead of grazing
Use legumes to improve forage quality, to increase soil
fertility
Integrate forage production with cropping systems. Do not
displace crops with forage.
All of the forage improvement strategies are low cost
Fertilizer use usually not recommended
 Forage Development Strategy
1. Backyard Forage Development Strategy

Backyard forage production is the growing of forage in the

house house compounds and around their boundaries
It is the establishment of hedges of tree forage, mixed plots of
legumes and grasses, herb legumes and fodder crops
very convenient for intensive feeding of dairy cattle
They provide feed, improve soil fertility, shelter and wood
They don’t compete for space other crops.
Backyard Forage Development Strategy …

Woody leguminous browse species are particularly suited to this

strategy due to their multipurpose benefits (e.g. provides forage,
fuelwood, shelter, construction and bee keeping) and rapid growth
Tall growing tropical grasses are also suited to backyard forage
Backyard forage can be cut and carried to tethered or housed
animals, or cut and conserved for dry season use in mixes with crop
residues and natural pasture hay or roughages
Easy to reach large numbers of farmers very quickly
The most widely accepted strategy
 Backyard Forage Development Strategy …

Suitable species include:

Tree/shrub legumes: leucaena, sesebania, pigean pea and tree lecuren
Herbs legumes: lablab, alfalfa, desmodium and siratro, Green leaf,
Silver leaf, vetch, Verano stylo
Grasses: Rhodes grass, elephant grass, panicum, phalaris and oats
Where to promote

At altitude ranging from 1500-2500m

Where livestock numbers are high and grazing land is
scarce
Where good control of livestock is possible
Where there is sufficient space within the backyard.
2. Under sowing and inter planting with legumes

It is the planting of forage legumes into another crop

The species could be annual crop or perennial plantation
Legumes are usually sown at the time of the final weeding of
tall growing cereal (e.g. maize and sorghum),
wheat+trifolium
It does not disturb the existing cropping pattern on the farm
It is a quick and easy method of establishing forage/ pasture
The most convenient approach
It improves soil fertility and provides extra food for family
 Under sowing and inter planting with legumes …

Suitable species characteristics:

Produces large quantities of high quality forage for utilization
by either post-harvest grazing or cut and carry systems
Deep rooting species
The species must be easy to establish
If grain legume species are used they should be early maturing
and drought tolerant.
Under-sowing works best with sprawling, low growing annual
legumes but can also work well with climbing legumes
 Under sowing and inter planting with legumes …

Suitable species:
• The most common forage legumes suitable for under-
sowing and intercropping are
• cow pea, verano stylo, Greenleaf, siratro, vetch, white
clovers and native clovers
Where to promote under sowing:
 In intensive cropping area where extra is needed
 Where food legumes are not already under sown
 Where more high protein food and feed is needed
 Where soil fertility low
3. Inter cropping
Is useful in areas where row planting is common
Row of forage legumes/ dual-purpose legumes are established
After every second or third row of the cereal crop. The legume
may be planted at the same time as, or after, the main crop.
Establishing pigeon pea with maize or sorghum.
Stabilizes crop production and provides extra forage.
4. Forage strip establishment/forage development on
conservation structures in arable areas
planted along the contour contribute to soil conservation by
directing ploughing along the contour and reducing run-off
Narrow lines of forage established between arable crops
Establishment of forage mixtures on soil erosion control
structures, (bunds on arable land, gully)
Provide forage for cut and carry (tethered in the field),
prevent soil erosion, provide wood for fuel, improve soil
fertility
Very close supervision is required in the first couples of years.
 Forage strip establishment…
Successful when perennial, thick rooted grasses are mixed with
woody leguminous species
No free grazing/shepherds
Provide wood for fuel and construction, shelter, nitrogen fixation
and bee products (honey and wax)
Development options
1) Forage planted on bunds and terrace walls
2) These strips can be either in arable areas or in stock
exclusion zones
3) Forage planted on contour strips without bunds and terraces
4) Forage planted as shelter belts around crop plots
Forage strip establishment…

Suitable species include:

Tree legume: tree Lucerne, sesbania, leucaena, pigeon pea.
Forage legumes: green leaf desmodium, siratro
Grasses: Rhodes, buffle, setaria, vetiver
Where to promote:
On slopes where soil erosion is a problem
On established bunds, terraces and in gullies
In arable areas where forage production is low at present
Where good control of livestock grazing is possible
5. Over sowing
Over sowing is the simplest of the forage development
strategies and can be under taken at very low cost rates used
It involves broadcasting, or sowing improved forage species
in to common grazing lands, native pastures, degraded areas
Over sowing have a number of advantages. It:
Costs very little
Requires little or no management
Improves forage production
Maintain or increases soil fertility
 Over sowing …

The seed is broadcast very early in the season, before or at

the beginning of the rainy season
Sites with a loose soil surface should be chosen.
Heavily compacted soils will result in poor germination and
establishment
Seeding rates should be low, varying from 0.5 to 1.0 kg/ha
depending on the species.
 Over sowing …
Suitable species
Species must establish easily on poor seedbeds
Tolerate heavy grazing, and be capable of setting seed and
so spreading even heavy grazing.
These include: Stylo, siratro, desmodium, common vetch.
Where to promote:
On poorer soils where a high cost system for establishment
could not be justified.
In areas with lighter and looser soils
In pasture areas lacking good legumes content
6. Permanent Grass/legume pastures

This involves establishing perennial mixed pasture on

prepared seedbeds for utilization by controlled grazing.

The advantages of the system are:

It produces high yielding, high quality forage
The legumes improve or maintain soil fertility
It allows a high stocking rate, and high levels of animal
production with relatively low labour inputs.
Permanent Grass/legume pastures …

This forage improves strategy is limited to high producing

enterprises with high cash returns
Requires high management and is costly to establish
Seeding rates is higher than other strategies (e.g. 6-10kg/ha)
Fertilizer is often required for high production but nitrogen
based fertilizers are not needed
A well- prepared seedbed is essential
Seedbed preparation for pastures is similar to that for cereal
crops
 Permanent Grass/legume pastures …

Suitable species:
Wide range of species may be combined in mixed pastures.
Low altitude: Rhodes, desmodium, siratro, stylo
Medium altitude: phalaaris, Rhodes, setaria, desmodium,
Trifolum
High altitude: phalaris, Trifolium, vetch
Where to promote
On good soils
In intensive livestock enterprise growing season
Where management is good
7. Improved forage in stock exclusion areas
This is the introduction of improve forage species in to areas
from which livestock are permanently excluded
The strategy is designed to prevent further soil erosion,
improves soil fertility and provides forage for cut and carries
It is an important means of protecting degraded areas, key
watersheds, and common land.
provide an opportunity to develop forage banks for use during
droughts or periods of seasonal forage shortage
Benefits for soil conservation, and production of fuel wood
and bee products where browse species are included
Stock exclusion areas
 Improved forage in stock exclusion areas …

Suitable species include:

Drought resistant legume species, with the ability to set
seed and spread
Herbs legumes: green leaf and silver-leaf desmodium, siratro,
verano, stylo, seca stylo.
Grasses: Rhodes, buffle grasses
Tree legumes: tree lucerene, sesbania, leucaena
 Improved forage in stock exclusion areas …
Where to promote
The area is identified for livestock exclusion by the local
community and the community enforce the decision.
Any where a community so decides
Where there is enough soil for plant establishment
In areas where there has been some soil disturbance.
Near villages so that cut and carries management is possible.
8. Fodder crops
This strategy involves the growing of high yielding, high
quality short-term crops for intensive livestock feeding
Permanent pasture establishment, fodder crops should be
restricted to intensive livestock systems, especially dairying.
Vetch
Fodder crops are useful because:
Provide a large quantity of high quality fodder in short time
They are acceptable
Easy to grow, with husbandry requirement similar to other
crops familiar to farmer
They are palatable
They are already well proven in many areas
Convenient way of introducing farmers to the concept of
improved livestock nutrition.
Fodder crops are costly to produce, (cultivation costs)
 Fodder crops …
Requires good management and husbandry practices
Care should be taken not to displace food or cash crops with
fodder crops.
Suitable species oats, vetch, alfalfa and fodder beet.

Where to promote:
On fertile soils
For intensive livestock enterprises, mainly dairying
Where extra land is available so that food production will
not reduced
In sites convenient for cut and carry utilization
9. Agroforestry

Is the combination of trees and agriculture in an integrated system

In particular contour forage banks and under-sowing of tree crops
or forest plantations where leguminous browse species provide an
upper story in a forage system or
Important for farmers with limited land resources. Because many
agroforestry strategies include leguminous species,
they are also attractive to farmers facing problems of declining soil
productivity.
 Common types of forages
Grasses
Most ruminant livestock in Ethiopia rely on local grasses for
their roughage and much of their nutrition.

Many of these species have low palatability, poor

productivity and inadequate nutrients especially during the
dry season.

Improved grasses have better productivity, palatability and

nutrient characteristics
1. Nappier Grass
Fast growing, deeply rooted, perennial grass growing up to 4
meters tall that can spread by underground stems
Important fodder crop in cut-and-carry system of dairy
It is high yielding; good palatability; good nutrient content
when young (dark green, less than 1 meter tall);
Easy to establish and persistent; drought tolerant; very good
for silage making; prevents soil erosion
Can serve as a wind-break; Not suitable for direct grazing
Can be intercropped with forage legumes (desmodium)
Requires a lot of manure/fertilizer for high yields
Not very frost tolerant
Nappier Grass
 Nappier Grass …
Climate:
Can be grown at altitudes from sea level to 2,000 m
It does best in high rainfall areas, over 1500 mm per year,
survives well in droughts due to its deep root system.
Soils:
Grow in most soil but does best in deep, fertile, well drained soils.
Agronomic practices:
Napier does best as a pure stand
To save labor, under cut and-carry systems, the plot be situated as
close to the zero grazing unit as possible.
Napier may also be planted to prevent soil erosion such as in strips
along contours, along river banks and on steep slopes
 Agronomic practices …

Prepare site by ploughing or digging.

Make sure the site is weed free at the time of planting.
If manure is available, worked into the soil at this time
Plant Napier at the beginning of the main rainy season
Wait for two heavy down pours before planting
Either canes or splits can be used for propagation.
Canes require less labor and planting material.
If using canes, select mature Napier and cut a length with
three to four nodes with buds from the middle part
Plant canes at an angle of at least 45 degrees.
 Agronomic practices …
To use splits, cut the Napier plant to 10 to 15 cm above the soil.
Each part should have some roots covered with soil.
Allow 0.5 m between plants and 0.5 m between rows in high
rainfall areas and 0.5 m between plants and 1 m between rows
in low rainfall areas.
Apply compound fertilizer (NPK: 20-20-0), 1 teaspoon per
hole at planting time.
After establishment, return as much as possible of the cows’
manure back to the Napier
If practicing zero grazing, collect slurry and apply every
cutting
Nappier Grass …

Harvesting:
Harvest from 3 to 4 months after planting, when 1 m high.
Generally harvest when the Napier is about one meter high
Cut the plant to about 5 cm from the ground during the
rainy season and 10 to 15 cm during the dry season.
With good climate, soil fertility and management yields can
be over 25 tones (dry matter) per hectare per year.
Yields of about half this amount can be achieved with little
or no fertilizer.
Nappier Grass …

Feeding:
Fresh material is commonly fed in stalls under cut-and-carry
Chop the material about 5 cm long to avoid wastage.
Do not graze directly.
Excess Napier grass can be made into good quality silage.
 Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana)

A vigorous, perennial grass, with a strong root system

It spreads quickly forming good ground cover and grows to
1.5 meters tall
Useful in cut-and-carry system and for open grazing
Does well in low rainfall areas and is drought tolerant
Stands heavy grazing; very palatable; good for hay making
It can be hard to establish due to poor seed germination
Rhodes Grass
 Rhodes Grass …

Climate:
Grow at altitudes from 600 to 2000 m above sea level
Well grown in areas receiving rainfall more than 250 mm
Also persists well under drought conditions.
Soil:
Grows in a wide range of soil but performs best in loamy,
fertile soils.
It does not do well in alkaline or very acid soils.
 Rhodes Grass …
Agronomic practices:
Plough and harrow the land at least once for fine seedbed
Sow immediately after harrowing
Sowing usually established from seed, and root splits
The best time to sow where there are two rainy seasons is
during the short rains
Where there is one rainy season, plant from early to mid-rains
Sowing is done when the soil is loose (dry).
Make furrows 25 cm apart
Sow seeds in the furrows, at a seed rate of 12 kg per hectare
 Agronomic practices …

Cover the seeds lightly

For high productivity, apply nitrogen fertilizers preferably
during heavy rains at the rate of 100 kg per hectare
Remove weeds between the rows using a hand hoe
Common pests such as army worms may attack the pastures
Start harvesting or grazing soon after flowering
Cut close to the ground to stimulate spreading
Leave to re-grow again until next flowering
When well-managed, it can yield an average of 8 tones
DM/ha/yr
Feeding:

Grazing Rhodes grass is the most common method of

feeding although some farmers use it for cut-and-carry
Tends to decrease in abundance on over-grazed pasture
due to its high palatability
Rhodes grass is very good for hay making
It can also be used for seed production; up to 350 kg seed
per hectare can be harvested.
 Buffel Grass (Cenchrus cilaris)

Buffel Grass is extremely drought tolerant

Is a very robust grass for areas below 2000 m with more
than 250 mm annual rainfall
It is adapted to heavy cutting or grazing but is less palatable
than many other grasses.
Buffel Grass establishes well from seed
Is well suited to improvement of stock exclusion areas
Rehabilitation of degraded areas
Buffel Grass
 Guinea Grass/Panic (Panicum maximum)

Panic is an erect grass, useful for strip planting or mixed

pastures
Suitable in areas below 2400 m altitude and >500 mm
annual rainfall
It grows on most soils but requires high fertility for good
productivity
Panic produces good quality forage and is well adapted to
cutting or grazing.
Guinea Grass
 Setaria (Setaria sphacelata)

Setaria is a widely adaptable species for areas below 2400 m

altitude with more than 700 mm annual rainfall
It grows on a wide range of soils and tolerates water logging
Setaria is ideal for contour forage strips where it can be
established by direct seeding or from splits
It does not produce seed readily
An advantage for contour forage strip strategies
 Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica)

Most important grass for forage and soil conservation

Performs well between 1800 and 3000 m altitude,
Is frost and drought tolerant and is productive with more than
400 mm annual rainfall
Requires fertile soils for strong growth but will survive on
poor soils
Phalaris establishes slowly but once developed is well
adapted to heavy grazing or cutting
It is suitable for contour forage strips, backyard forage and
mixed pasture strategies.
 Phalaris …
Phalaris establishes well from splits
It requires through seedbed preparation for direct sowing
and does not establish well with competition.
Phalaris does not set fertile seed except where long growing
seasons are possible, in which case annual seed yields of
300-400 kg per ha are feasible with adequate nutrition.
This lack of fertility in many sites is an advantage for
contour forage strip strategies because it reduces the risk of
Phalaris becoming a crop weed.
 Forage legumes
Forage legumes are herbaceous (not woody shrubs)
Used in under-sowing, intercropping, over-sowing,
improvement of stock exclusion areas, in mixed pasture
establishment.
Forage legumes with a sprawling or climbing habit can also
be used in backyard forage plots.
Establishment is always by direct seeding
 1. Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum)

Siratro is a perennial, sprawling/ climbing forage legume

Important role in under-sowing and stock exclusion areas
Its primary use is for forage, but also used for erosion
control and nitrogen fixation
Climate:
Siratro grows below 2400 m altitude and requires more than
600 mm annual rainfall
Soils:
Adapted to a wide range of well-drained soils, including low
fertility sandy soils, but performs poorly on wet sites.
 Siratro …
Agronomic practices:
Siratro establishes easily with sowing rates from 0.5 to 2 kg per ha
Highly suitable for over-sowing strategies below 2000 m in areas
with annual rainfall exceeding 750 mm
Siratro is an excellent understory species for plantation and
forestry crops if tree spacing is sufficiently wide
Essential an agroforestry strategy with good soil conservation
characteristics because of good ground cover characteristics.
It climbs very vigorously and is useful for controlling weedy
grasses and other species.
Feeding:
Siratro requires careful grazing management for high
productivity and is better suited to cut and carry systems
based on under-sowing and stock exclusion area strategies
Repeated low cutting kills plants but they respond well to
continuous light cutting
It has moderate palatability, which increases with age
Its low energy content makes it unsuitable as a quality dairy
ration but useful for fattening dairy bulls or culled animals
 2. Axillaris (Macrotyloma axillare)

Axillaris is a perennial, sprawling/ climbing forage legume

highly suited to under-sowing, intercropping and improving
stock exclusion areas
It grows best with Siratro and Greenleaf Desmodium.
Climate:
Grows best in warm to hot areas below 2400 m altitude and

requires more than 600 mm annual rainfall.

Soils:
Adapted to a wide range of soils, including low fertility sandy
soils, and is moderately tolerant of waterlogging.
 Axillaris …
Agronomic practices:
Establishes easily with sowing rates from 0.5 to 1 kg per ha
Well suited to roadside strategies
Seed production is limited by its short flowering period and
is more successful when crops are grown on tall cereal crops
Harvests of up to 500 kg per ha is possible
It can be used as an understory species for plantation and
forestry crops if tree spacing is sufficiently wide
It combines well with Elephant grass.
 Axillaris …
Feeding:
Most productive with cut and carry systems based on under-
sowing and stock exclusion area strategies
It should not be cut below 20 cm since repeated low cutting
will kill plants, but respond well to continuous light cutting
It has low to moderate palatability, which increases with age
and makes it suitable for over-sowing common grazing land
and soil conservation areas
Livestock may need a familiarization period when they are
first introduced to this forage.
 3. Desmodium species

Is a climbing perennial legume with small leaves and deep roots

which, in favorable conditions, forms very dense ground cover
It is popular in cut-and carry systems
For areas with two rainy seasons, sow seeds during the short
rains but plant cuttings during the long rains
The seeds can be sown either by drilling or by broadcasting
For drilling, make shallow furrows about 5cm deep, 30 cm apart
Cover the seed with 1 cm of soil and press softly
For broadcasting, spread the seed evenly over the seed bed
 Desmodium …
Desmodium can also be established from cutting
Cuttings should be 60cm long with soil attached to new roots
Make furrows 30 cm apart and 10 cm deep and plant the vines
30 cm apart
Desmodium can be grown between rows of Napier grass
When grown together with Napier, desmodium adds nitrogen to
the soil, benefiting the Napier and reducing the amount of
nitrogen fertilizer required for top dressing
Once desmodium has fully established, it forms complete
ground cover, and reducing labour and cost of weeding
 Desmodium …
Add 15 kg dry farmyard manure to the seedbed before planting
Keep the plot weed-free during the early establishment
When well established, desmodium is able to suppress weeds
Good quality supplementary forage with a high protein content
Harvest when needed, spread it in the sun for few hours to wilt
Chop and mix thoroughly with other forages, such as maize
stover or Napier grass, then feed to the animals
3 - 6kgs of green desmodium is equivalent to 1 to 2 kgs of
concentrate
Many varieties (the two common are green leaf and silver leaf)
 4. Silverleaf (Desmodium uncinatum)

Silverleaf is a perennial, sprawling forage legume suited to under-

sowing, intercropping and improving stock exclusion areas
It has green and white leaves which are light green underneath
Climate:
• Silverleaf grows below 2200 masl, requires more than 900 mm
annual rainfall, and is tolerant of cool weather and light frosts
Soils:
• Silverleaf should be grown on relatively fertile, well drained soils
Agronomic practices:
It is palatable and thus is better managed for cut and carry systems
Sowing rates from 1 to 2.5 kg per ha.
Seed production harvests of up to 400 kg per ha possible.
 Silverleaf …

Feeding:
Silverleaf needs careful grazing management for high
productivity and is most productive with cut and carry
systems based on under-sowing and stock exclusion area
strategies.
Continuous moderate cutting or grazing is preferable to
occasional very heavy cutting or grazing.
Silverleaf
 5. Greenleaf (Desmodium intortum)

Greenleaf is less tolerant of cool weather and light frosts

It is a perennial, sprawling forage legume suited to under-
sowing, intercropping and improving stock exclusion areas
Used in forage production, nitrogen fixation, erosion control
Climate:
Greenleaf grows below 2400 m altitude and requires more
than 700 mm annual rainfall
Soils:
Greenleaf should be grown on fertile, well-drained soils and
needs careful grazing management for high productivity.
Greenleaf
 Greenleaf…
Agronomic practices:
Greenleaf requires a moderate to fine seedbed with sowing
rates from 1 to 2 kg per ha and so is not suited to over-sowing
strategies
Greenleaf is exceptionally successful under perennial tree
crops and forestry because of its shade tolerance.
Feeding:
It is most productive with regular cut and carry systems based
on under-sowing and stock exclusion area strategies
Continuous moderate cutting or grazing is preferable
 6. Lablab (Lablab purpureus)

Lablab is annual or short lived perennial legume with very

vigorous seedlings, and best promoted as a dual purpose species
Climate: Grows up to 2400 masl and requires more than 400 mm
annual rainfall.
Soils: Suited to different soils but not tolerate salinity, water-logging
Agronomic practices:
Seeding rates of 18-20 kg/ha for pure stands, 15 kg per ha for
under-sowing and 2 kg per ha for forage strip sowings
It should not be cut below 25-30 cm.
Feeding: It supplements other forages and its seed is human food.
Lablab purpureus
 7. Cow Pea (Vigna unguiculata)

Annual dual purpose legume suited to wide range of environments

Climate: grows in lowlands up to 2500 m and is drought tolerant –
maturing with > 300 mm annual rainfall
Soils: grows on a wide range of well-drained soils and will tolerate
moderate cutting during the growing season.
Agronomic practices: establish on rough seedbed and is sown at
15 kg/ha for pure stands and about 12 kg/ha for under-sowing
Ideal for under-sowing or intercropping strategies and
complements maize and sorghum particularly well
Cow Pea seed is also a valuable human food
Feeding: utilized after harvesting the companion crop – either by
cut and carry harvesting, or direct grazing
Cow pea (Vigna unguiculate)
 8. Vetch (Vicia dasycarpa)

Vetch is a vigorous climbing/ sprawling annual legume with a

wide range of adaptation and high level of farmer
acceptability.
Climate: grows well between 1500 and 3000 m altitude and
is suited to a wide range of rainfall above 400 mm per annum.
Soils: grows on wide range of soils but requires good
drainage for optimum productivity.
Vetch
Vetch …
Agronomic practices: suited to under-sowing, mixed pasture
and backyard forage plots
Sowing rates are 20 kg per ha for pure stands, 12 kg per ha for
under-sowing, and 5-12 kg per ha for mixed pasture
Sown at 12-20 kg/ha with oats, vetch makes excellent hay
Regeneration from self-sown seed is low, need annual sowing
Most suited to under-sowing and is self-regenerating where it
is allowed to mature and seed before harvest of companion
crop
Seed yields between 400 and 1000 kg per ha are common
Vetch (Vicia sativa) is better suited to low rainfall areas
 9. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

Alfalfa is a deep rooted, perennial herbaceous legume that produces a

lot of stems and leaves and, upon maturity, small purple flowers.
It is established from seed
It is used as a supplementary forage for dairy cattle
It is high in nutrients and highly palatable
Used primarily as hay, but it can also be used in cut- and-carry
systems and even as year round pasture
Lucerne is best grown as a pure stand.
Climate: grow in a wide range of climatic conditions but does best in
warm climates with a lot of sunshine, need adequate water
Soils: prefers deep, well drained, highly fertile loamy soils
It does not tolerate water logged or acid soils
Alfalfa
 Alfalfa …
Agronomic practices: Prepare very fine, leveled seedbed
Sow seeds at the start of rains
Prepare shallow furrows 30 cm apart
If growing for first time, inoculate the seed with rhizobia
Drill along the furrows or broadcast seed at a rate of 5 to 7.5
kg per hectare or, if growing under irrigation, double the
amount of seed sown
Cover the seeds to a depth of approximately 0.6 cm
If possible, apply 100 kg of single super phosphate fertilizer
per hectare before planting
 Alfalfa …
Keep the plot weed-free until full ground cover is achieved
Some important pests include lucerne weevil, caterpillars,
cutworms/army worms, aphids and leafhoppers
Some important diseases are bacterial leaf spot, common leaf spot,
downy mildew, stem blight and many others
Controlled by natural predators, use of chemicals, maintaining a
healthy stand, crop rotation and use of resistant varieties
Cut at 5 cm above the ground every 5 to 7 weeks, or, if grown
under irrigation, monthly
Dry matter yields can be up to 20 tons per hectare depending on
management
 Alfalfa …

Feeding: When feeding as cut-and-carry fodder, leave the cut

forage to wilt or mix with grass before giving to the animals
to prevent bloat
To reduce the chance of bloat, use a commercial “stop bloat”
preparation in the drinking water and do not turn hungry
animals onto lush lucerne pastures
Excess lucerne is best conserved as hay or silage
For the best quality hay, cut the crop in the early bud stage
 Fodder tree/browse legumes
Tree legumes are extremely important elements in improved
forage production programs because of their productivity and
multi-purpose uses
Used as fuelwood, construction timber, seeds, and bee
products
Perennial trees or shrubs
Apart from large quantities of quality forage, have deep
rooting systems to increase their productivity during the dry
season
 1. Leucaena species
Leucaena is a browse legume of great importance in Ethiopia
Provide highly palatable, nutritious forage
Used for fuelwood production, nitrogen supply for
companion crops, erosion control, and shelter
Perennial, deep-rooted, growing up to 20 m tall
Produce a lot of seeds in pods
The leaves are a very good source of protein and can be used
in both cut-and-carry and open grazing production systems
Re-growth occurs very fast after cutting
It can be used as shade in plantation crops
Aids maintenance of soil fertility and soil conservation
Leucaena
 Leucaena …
Well suited to backyard forage programs, contour forage strips, agro-
forestry, intercropping with perennial tree crops, and for soil
conservation on stock exclusion areas
Best established by direct seeding for all strategies except contour forage
strips and agroforestry where seedlings are more appropriate because
they reduce the risk of young plants being killed by early grazing
Bare rooted seedlings are the best strategy for nursery production
If bare rooted seedlings are planted the same day, 90 per cent survival is
possible
Climate: Leucaena grows from sea level up to 1900 m but performs best
up to 1000 m above sea level
It does well in areas with rainfall above 600 mm per year
 Leucaena …
Soils: Leucaena grows best on deep, well drained clay soils and does
not do well in acidic soils.
Agronomic practices: Plough and harrow to make a fine seedbed
Established from seeds
To break seed dormancy, soak in warm water for 48 hours
Inoculate the seed with the correct rhizobia
Make furrows 3 to 10 m apart and sow the seed at a rate of 1 to 2 kg/ha
Planting the seeds 2 to 3 cm deep.
If seedling is used transplant seedlings when they are eight weeks old
For a pure stand, prepare holes spaced 1 m by 1 m and at least 30 cm
deep
Leucaena …
Start harvesting at the beginning of the second wet season by cutting back
to 50 cm above ground level
Cut twice during the wet season when re-growth is 50-60 cm, or once at
the end and conserve as dry leaf meal
First grazing may be done when the plants are 1.5 m in height
Avoid heavy grazing until fully mature, from 1 to 3 years old.
Harvesting intervals can be 6 to 8 weeks
Well-managed, leucaena yield up to 2 tons dry matter per hectare per year.
Feeding: Leucaena is a high quality, very palatable supplementary forage
It is best cut and fed fresh or as dry leaf meal
Feeding excessive amounts can cause bloat and hair loss, therefore
leucaena should not make up more than 30% of the total ration.
 2. Sesbania (Sesbania sesban)

Sesbania is an adaptable browse legume which will live for up to 7

years
It is highly palatable and also uses for shelter, and nitrogen fixation
for companion crops
Sesbania wood is not useful for fuel or construction but used for
fencing
Climate: Sesbania produces best below 2000 m altitude,
Very frost sensitive, and not very drought tolerant – requiring more
than 600 mm annual rainfall for survival.
Soils: Sesbania grows on a wide range of soils including very poor
acidic sands and waterlogged soils, but responds well to improved
fertility.
Sesbania
 Sesbania …
Agronomic practices: Sesbania is highly suited to contour forage banks,
living fences in backyards, and alley farming
It establishes rapidly from direct seeding
Cutting or browsing should not begin until the trees are more than 1 m
It does not self-seed easily so direct seeding is required
trees, which have not been cut for 12 months, and can yield more than 1
kg seed per tree
Feeding: Cutting intervals of about 6 weeks result in good productivity
Infrequent cutting or browsing results in very low leaf to stem ratios
Sesbania produces less forage than Leucaena but what it does produce is
of very high quality
 3. Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)

Short-lived dual purpose shrub legume providing forage, grain for human
consumption, and low quality fuelwood
It lives up to 4 years and is an excellent crop to improve food security
and integrate forage and cropping systems.
Climate: Pigeon Pea adapts well in altitudes below 2400 masl
Requires more than 350 mm annual rainfall for good production.

Pigeon Pea
 Pigeon Pea …
Soils: Pigeon Pea establishes rapidly on a wide range of well-drained soils
Agronomic practices: useful plant to introduce the concept of contour
forage strips and alley cropping to lowland farmers
The plant is best established by direct seeding using 10-50 kg per ha for
pure stands (not recommended for forage strategies) and
About 1 kg per km of contour forage strips
Seed sown into a well-prepared site and covered with 2 cm soil
Pigeon Pea intercrops very well with maize and sorghum
Annual seed yields of 1500 to 3000 kg per ha have been recorded but
Pod boring insects reduce yields. Feeding:
Best developed in contour forage strips, backyard and intercropping
It recovers well from light cutting and is highly palatable.
 4. Tree Lucerne/Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus
palmensis)
A temperate, multipurpose browse legume of highland areas of
Ethiopia
Highly productive for altitudes above 2000 m altitude
Use for forage and fuelwood but farmers also value it for
shelter, bee forage, nitrogen fixation, and soil conservation
purposes
Climate: Tree Lucerne is drought tolerant once established but
requires more than 400 mm rainfall for maximum productivity
It is productive at an altitudes above 2000 masl.
Soils: Tree lucerne tolerates mild frosts but will not tolerate
water logging at all. Most suited to well-drained fertile soils
Tree Lucerne
 Tree Lucerne …
Agronomic practices: Tree lucerne is well suited to backyard forage
programs, contour forage strips, agro-forestry systems and for soil
conservation on stock exclusion areas
It is best established by direct seeding for extensive strategies
For intensive strategies (backyard forage, contour forage strips and
agro-forestry) should use nursery-grown seedlings
Bare rooted seedlings are the best strategy for nursery production
Seedlings should be planted the same day that they are dug from the
nursery, making village nurseries than centralized nurseries
Tree lucerne should be planted at about 50 cm between plants in the
row for contour forage strips and alley cropping systems
Tree lucerne produces best with cut and carry systems
 Tree Lucerne …

It should not be harvested until it has reached more than 1 m height

In Ethiopia annual yields of 1 kg DM forage per meter of contour
forage hedge and up to 4500 kg DM per ha have been achieved on
farmers’ fields
Single trees in contour forage strips produce up to 1 kg seed per
year after they are two years old
Seed is best collected by plucking ripe pods from the tree before
they shatter. This is generally done on an opportunistic basis
Cut trees continue to flower and set seed and make seed collection
easier because they have less height and more synchronized
flowering.