Cytoskeleton
What is Cytoskeleton?
• The large network consisting of protein fibers and
other molecules that gives shape and structure to
cells in the body.
• The cytoskeleton helps organize structures within the
cell called organelles and other substances found in
the fluid inside the cell.
Types of protein filaments
There are three main types of Protein fibers in the cytoskeleton:
A. MICROTUBULES
B. MICROFILAMENTS
C. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Microtubules
• A microtubule consists of a long, unbranched, hollow tubules
24–25 nm in diameter and with 6 nm thick wall having 13
subunits or protofilaments.
• A protofilament of microtubule is made of a protein called
tubulin. It occurs in two different forms, called α-tubulin and β-
tubulin.
Functions of Microtubules
• It provides shape and support to the cell.
• It helps in the formation of vacuoles.
• It holds different cell organelles in place.
• It assists in cell signaling.
Microfilaments
• Microfilaments are the thinnest class of the cytoskeletal fibers,
approximately 8 nm in diameter.
• Thicker filaments, composed of a motor protein, myosin,
interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers.
• An actin microfilament consists of a twisted double chain of actin subunits.
Function of microfilaments
• Microfilaments are found to be involved in
movement associated with furrow formation in cell
division.
• In plant cells(and others), actin-myosin interactions
and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic
streaming.
• This creates a circular flow of cytoplasm in the cell.
• This speeds the distribution of materials within the cell.
Intermediate filaments
• Constructed like woven ropes, they are typically between 8
nm to 12 nm in diameter, which is “intermediate” between
the thin and thick filaments.
• Intermediate filaments are built from a diverse class of
subunits from a family of proteins called keratins.
Function of Intermediate filaments
• They are very stable structures provide reinforce
cell shape and fix organelle location.
• Intermediate filaments can be anchored between
the membrane to provide extra support
Cell signaling
• is part of a complex system of communication that governs
basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions.
• The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their
microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair,
and immunity as well as normal tissue homeostasis.
• Errors in cellular information processing are responsible
for diseases such as cancer, autoimmunity, and diabetes.
• By understanding cell signaling, diseases may be treated
effectively and, theoretically, artificial tissues may be created.
MECHANISM:
Cell signaling done by two mechanisms:
1) some cell-to-cell communication requires direct cell-cell
contact
2) some cells can form gap junctions that connect their
cytoplasm to the cytoplasm of adjacent cells (eg:cardiac
muscle).
• The notch signaling mechanism is an example of juxtacrine
signaling (also known as contact-dependent signaling)in
which two adjacent cells must make physical contact in
order to communicate.
Signaling molecules are synthesized by signaling cells
and produce a specific response only on target cells that
have receptors for signaling
molecules(eg:steroids ,thyroxin).
Signaling molecule acts as a ligand ,which are recognize
and binds to receptor causes a conformational change in
the cytosolic domains of the receptor that induces
specific cellular responses.
The process of converting signals into cellular
responses, as well as the individual steps in this
process, is termed signal transduction.
Transduction pathways may involve few or many
components.
Signaling pathways commonly based on the
general classes of receptors involved (e.g; GPCRs,
tyrosine kinases)the type of ligand.
Types of signaling
3 types of signaling :
• ENDOCRINE hormones are produced by an endocrine gland
and sent through the blood stream to distant cells. Eg; TSH,
progesterone, testosterone.
• PARACRINE signaling molecule affects only target cells in
the proximity of the signaling cell. Eg: muscle contraction.
• AUTOCRINE In this cells respond to molecules they produce
themselves. Eg: growth factors, prostaglandines.
RECEPTOR
RECEPTOR
• DEFFINITION;
• Receptors are specialized proteins located either on the
surface of cells or within cells that can recognize and
respond to specific molecules, called ligands.
• These ligands can be hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs, or
other signaling molecules.
• Receptors play a crucial role in cellular communication and
are involved in various physiological processes.
Types of Receptors
1. Ion channel receptors.
2. G protein-coupled receptors.
3. Enzyme-Linked Receptors.
4. Nuclear receptors
Ion Channel Receptors:
• These receptors are also known as ligand-gated ion
channels.
• When a ligand binds to these receptors, they undergo a
conformational change that opens or closes an ion channel,
allowing specific ions (such as sodium, potassium, calcium,
or chloride) to flow across the cell membrane.
• Examples include nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and GABA
receptors.
G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs):
• GPCRs are the largest family of cell surface
receptors and are involved in transmitting signals
from a wide variety of stimuli, including hormones
and neurotransmitters.
• When a ligand binds to a GPCR, it activates an
associated G protein, which then triggers
intracellular signaling cascades by either activating
or inhibiting various downstream effectors such as
enzymes or ion channels
Enzyme-Linked Receptors:
• These receptors possess enzymatic activity or are
associated with intracellular enzymes.
• Ligand binding induces receptor dimerization or
conformational changes, leading to activation of the
receptor's intrinsic enzymatic activity or recruitment
and activation of downstream signaling proteins.
• Examples include receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and
receptor guanylyl cyclases
Nuclear Receptors:
• These receptors are located within the cell, typically in the
cytoplasm or nucleus, and act as transcription factors.
• Upon ligand binding, nuclear receptors undergo
conformational changes and translocate to the nucleus,
where they regulate gene expression by binding to specific
DNA sequences called hormone response elements (HREs)
and modulating transcription.
• Examples include steroid hormone receptors and thyroid
hormone receptors
Intracellular Receptors:
• These receptors are located inside the cell, typically in
the cytoplasm or nucleus.
• They can bind to lipophilic ligands such as steroid
hormones and thyroid hormones, which can diffuse
across the cell membrane. Upon ligand binding, these
receptors undergo conformational changes and
translocate to the nucleus, where they directly regulate
gene expression or modulate intracellular signaling
pathways
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