RELIGION

Part 2 Ms. Hiba

Religion and social order

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Functionalist accounts of how religion contributes to social order
and social solidarity

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Ms. HIBA KHAN
Key Points

•Emile Durkheim argued that religion provides social cohesion/social solidarity and social control to maintain society in
social solidarity.

•Collective consciousness, which is the fusion of all of our individual consciousnesses, creates a reality of its own.

•Critics of the functionalist approach point out that religion can be dysfunctional. For example, religion may incite violence
by a fundamentalist religious group.

Key Terms

•social control: any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group, especially by one’s peers

•social cohesion/social solidarity: The bonds or “glue” that maintain stability in society.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Religion and Social Support
Key Points
Many studies suggest that religious people are happier and less stressed than their non-religious counterparts.
The Legatum Prosperity Index reflects the research that there is a positive link between religious engagement and well-being.
Religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, because it is related to less psychological distress, more life
satisfaction, and better self-actualization.
Key Terms
well-being: a state of health, happiness and/or prosperity
self-actualization: Self-actualization is a term that has been used in various psychology theories, often in slightly different ways.
The term was originally introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one’s full potential.
However, the concept was brought most fully to prominence in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, in which “self-
actualization” was the final level of psychological development that can be achieved when all basic and mental needs are
fulfilled. In such a case, the “actualization” of full personal potential takes place.
religiosity: An index of how strongly religious a person is
Religion and Health
There is now extensive research suggesting that religious people are happier and less stressed than their non-religious
counterparts. Social scientists have identified a number of mechanisms that might explain why religion might make an
individual happier, none of which rest on the explanation of divine intervention or supernatural phenomenon. Certain features
of religious practice may facilitate greater well-being for members. These include the following:
• basic social contact
• a large, non-family network of social support
• the positive mental health one derived from optimism and volunteering,
• coping strategies to enhance one’s ability to deal with stress
Ms. HIBA KHAN
• a worldview that prevents existential questions from arising
Traditional functionalism takes an inclusive approach. It focuses on understanding how religion functions to
create, promote and maintain the cultural values that provide the moral basis for social order.
Cultural institutions (including education and the media) create and maintain order and continuity by promoting
and supporting a collective conscience – a set of shared beliefs, values and meanings that unify a population
through an individual sense of ‘collective personality’.

Durkheim (1912) described this in the following way:

‘There can be no society which does not feel the need of upholding and reaffirming at regular intervals the
collective sentiments and the collective ideas which make its unity and personality. Now this moral remaking
cannot be achieved except by the means of reunions, assemblies and meetings where the individuals, being
closely united to one another, reaffirm in common their common sentiments.’ Social integration is, therefore, an
important function of religion, particularly in pre-modern, tribal societies.
There, the development of social solidarity or ‘moral togetherness’ is based on practical religious mechanisms,
such as collective ceremonies and services. In modern societies, religious practice may be important, but it
progressively gives way to other forms of ‘religious-type’ practices (from sport to shopping) that serve a similar
unifying function.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

For Durkheim, therefore, the key to understanding religion is not its content but its effect/function: ‘The
power of society over the individual so transcends individual existence that people collectively give it sacred
significance. By worshipping God people are worshipping the power of the collective over all, they are
worshipping society.’

Religion can be seen as having several major functions:

 Providing common values: a sense of shared beliefs and values is created by following a set of religious
moral rules and codes.

 Creating social solidarity: religious ceremonies bring people together in situations where they put into
practice their shared norms, values and experiences, thereby reinforcing social solidarity. Different
religious rituals involve shared symbols and meanings:

 Durkheim claimed that religious symbols reflect a significant distinction between ‘the sacred’ or special
and ‘the profane’ or every day, although their actual form was not important. They could be objects, such
as a book or an animal, ceremonies, such as a wedding, or places, such as the home of a prophet. Their
function was simply to develop shared values – the fundamental things on which people could agree,
thus drawing them together in a society.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
 Providing a source of identity: people understand who they are through membership of religious groups.

 Ensuring the survival of values over time: a common culture is transmitted from one generation to the next,
thereby providing social continuities through religious traditions and customs.

 Enabling individuals and groups to cope with crises. There are times of pain and crisis in life that require
individual or collective efforts to re-establish harmony.

For example, religion provides explanations for death and the religious rituals surrounding death help manage
this difficult situation by providing a structure (the funeral) that permits certain forms of social action, such as
public grieving. Religion provides important psychological support in times of personal crisis.

Most recent functionalist views take account of the decline of religion in modern societies if religion gradually
loses its power to provide a collective conscience, other institutions develop to provide it. Robert Bellah (1967)
argued that such societies develop civil religions – a set of fundamental beliefs shared by the majority of
people in a society.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Civil religions can take many shapes and forms. Civil religions contain ideas and practices that, while not overtly
religious in content, perform the same function as religious organizations in a society.
The civil rights movements in the USA in the 1960s, for example, was organized and voiced through Christian
church membership to challenge the unequal treatment of African-Americans

There has also been a greater emphasis on the idea of dysfunctions – religion is not automatically and inevitably
functional. In culturally diverse societies it can create conflict – some American Christian fundamentalist groups,
for example, are violently opposed to abortion.

As Bruce (1995) observed: ‘Social scientists have long been aware of the role of religion as social cement; shared
rituals and shared beliefs that bind people together. What is not so often noted is the idea religion often divides
one group from another.’
The greater emphasis on small scale functionality, therefore, is sometimes expressed in terms of religion as a
mechanism for social change.

Membership of a religious organization may provide oppressed groups with the solidarity and sense of purpose
they need to challenge unjust laws.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Durkheim, Parsons and Bellah argue that religion performs important functions for society, while Malinowksi argues that
it performs an important function for the individual. All agree that religion promotes stability and helps to preserve the status
quo and prevent upheaval and rapid social change.

Malinowski (1954) studied the religious practices of the Trobriand islanders. What he noted was that when the islanders
were fishing on inshore, safe waters they did not practice religious ceremonies, but they did so when fishing in more
dangerous waters. He concluded that religion had a psychological function: it helped individuals to deal with an anxious and
stressful situation. These sorts of unpredictable events can cause instability and disruption in society, so by performing this
psychological function religion also helped preserve the stability of society. The equivalent of the dangerous fishing
expeditions, in contemporary society and religion, is events like births and deaths. Religious ceremonies accompany these
events in order to preserve stability. In this way religion performs psychological functions for the individual.

Talcott Parsons

• Saw the main function of religion as being the maintenance of social order.
• Religion promotes value consensus: many legal systems are based on religious morals for example.
• Like Malinowski Parsons saw religious beliefs and rituals as helping maintain social order in times of social changeand to
help individuals make sense of unpredictable events.
• Religion can also help people make sense of contradictory events.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Is religion a conservative force (source of social order) /does it prevent social change?

‘Conservative’ usually has two meanings:

• Preventing social change
• Supporting traditional values.
• We might also add a third: modest, reserved, austere, not showy.

One important analytical point is that some Fundamentalist groups want to reverse some social changes that have
undermined the role of religion in society, taking society back to a more ‘traditional era’.
A second analytical point is to distinguish between the extent to which different religions promote conservative
views and how successful they are in actually translating those views into actions.

Arguments and evidence for the view that religion acts as a conservative force/prevents social change

• Various functionalist thinkers have argued that religion prevents rapid, radical social change and that it supports
traditional values
• Marx certainly argued that religion was a conservative force – through acting as the ‘opium of the masses’
• Simone deBeauvoir argued that religion propped up Patriarchy by compensating women for their second class
status.
• Churches tend to have traditional values and be supported by more conservative elements in society. They also
tend to support existing power structures (e.g. links to royalty and the House of Lords in the U.K.)
• Islamic Fundamentalist movements, such as the Islamic State, aim to take society back to a more religious era
• The New Christian Right in America support conservative values: traditional family structures, for example.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
Arguments and evidence against the view that religion acts as a conservative force

•Liberation Theology – a movement for the oppressed in Latin America stood against the powerful elites. However, it didn’t
seem to have much success in changing anything.
•The Baptist Church and the Civil Rights movement in the USA, much more successful.
•The Nation of Islam promoted radical social change in the USA in the 1960s.
•The New Age Movement promotes acceptance and diversity, so is not ‘conservative’
•Feminist forms of spirituality are not conservative.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

EVALUATING FUNCTIONALIST VIEWS OF RELIGION

•Some, such as P. Worsley (1956) have criticised Durkheim’s study of the Arunta from an anthropological and theological
perspective, suggesting that he misunderstood certain aspects of the religion, particularly the idea of the separation between
the sacred and profane and the significance of totems.

•These theories are outdated and arguably tell us little about religion today. They envisage a society with a single unifying
religion that brought people together, whereas in most developed, western societies today there is no consensus about religion.
Even in countries where there is a state religion and significant levels of religiosity, religion is often a major factor in conflict,
such as in several middle eastern countries.

•Malinowski’s study was unusual for a functionalist in that it was a participant observation. This was high in validity and was
very detailed, conducted over four years. However, from a positivist perspective, it was unreliable and the conclusions could
not be generalised to other tribes or societies.

•Some would argue that describing “Americanism”/The American Dream as a religion stretches the definition of religion too
far. It is clear that patriotism or nationalism does functions as a form of belief system or ideology and that it may well carry
out some of the functions that Durkheim, Parsons or Malinowski ascribe to religion. However, is that enough for something to
be considered religious, or does it not require some sort of supernatural, divine element to it? “Americanism” arguably does
have this (“God Bless America!” etc.) but this is arguably the application of traditional religious belief to a political ideology,
rather than being a religion in its own right.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

*KEY TERMS

Closed belief system: One that cannot be disproved because it is based on faith rather than
evidence.
Open belief system: One that can be questioned, tested and modified.
Disenchantment: ways of understanding the world based on beliefs in the supernatural are
replaced by science and rational thought.
Collective conscience: the shared beliefs and values which bind the members of a community
together.
Ritual: constantly repeated aspects of religious belief and practice, usually involving some form
of ceremony.
 Rituals such as marriages and funerals play a significant role in ‘marking important life
transitions’. In some forms of Judaism, for example, the bar mitzvah, for boys aged 13 and
bat mitzvah for girls aged 12 symbolize a religious rite of passage: a ceremony marking the
passing between life stages, such as childhood and adulthood.
 Intensification rites function to mark group occasions and involve the expression and
affirmation of common values. Religious ceremonies and festivals have an integration
function – that of binding people through shared beliefs and practices.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
Civil religions: ideas and practices that, while not overtly
religious in content, perform the same function as religious
organizations in a society.

Liberation theology: political philosophy which argues

that the church should use its power and resources to
liberate the poor from their poverty.

Protestant ethic: philosophy based on the idea of serving

God through hard work, thrift and moral uprightness.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Marxist accounts of the relationship between religion, oppression
and capitalism

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Ms. HIBA KHAN
 “Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature…”

Marxists see the role of religion in capitalist societies as that of promoting a consensus that ultimately benefits a
ruling class.
Traditional Marxists take an exclusive approach to religion, focusing on the particular features & content that make
it qualitatively different from other forms of belief and practice.
More specifically, Marxists explore the role of religion in promoting consensus through its status as an ideology
capable of explaining everything about everything.
From this perspective, religion shapes how people see the world, and its role is to represent that world in ways that
reflect and support the existing social order.

Marx (1844) believed that religion was an oppressive social force that operated in hugely unequal capitalist
societies, such as the UK, France and Germany in the 19th century.
The role of religion was to make the vast majority of the population, who lived in poverty and misery, accept their
situation. They were told that they should not question nor challenge their relationship with a ruling class who kept
the best things in life for themselves.
For Marx, religion was a source of social control. Its ideological message was for everyone, rich and poor alike,
to accept the world as it was.
At the same time, its purpose was to silence conflict:Ms.
toHIBA
stop
KHANpeople questioning why so much poverty existed in a
very rich society.
Religion was an efficient form of social control because if people believed in God, this helped to:

 Uphold the existing situation (status quo) – the social world could be portrayed as ‘God-given’ and beyond
the power of people to change.

 Legitimize economic exploitation – if God made the world, it was not the place of people to question why
some were rich and most were poor.

 Justify poverty – poverty was portrayed as a virtue, something to be suffered without complained.

Marx called religion ‘the opiate of the masses’ because it ‘dulled the pain of oppression’ with its promise of
eternal life (Christianity) or reincarnation into a higher social caste (Hinduism) for those who did their religious
duty.
He also suggested that it was a form of false consciousness – by embracing false religious ideas people, fail to
understand the real causes of their misery and oppression – capitalism and its system of economic exploitation.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

For Balibar and Althusser (1970), religion provided the ideological justification for things such as social inequality
that come from capitalist economic relationships.

Religion is, therefore, a conservative force that exists to support the economic status quo in two main ways:

 Oppressively, by imposing a set of ‘God-given’ values and beliefs. This role is generally played out in societies
where religious leaders exercise wide-ranging political and economic power. In countries such as Iran, for
example, the religious authorities ‘interpretation of Shari’ah (Islamic law) places restrictions on various aspects
of individual freedoms relating to things such as food and dress.

 Supportively, in the sense that there are times when capitalist societies undergo economic crises that threaten
their stability. In such moments, religion channels social dissent and helps to preserve the status quo by either
promoting limited but crucial forms of social change or by managing social transformations.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Key Points
•One of the most frequently paraphrased statements of Karl Marx is, religion is the opium of the people.
•Karl Marx argues that religion plays a significant role in maintaining the status quo by promising rewards in the
after-life rather than in this life.
•Social inequalities result from the differences inherent in class structures, such as the inequality between the
proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Key Terms
•proletariat: the working class or lower class
•status quo: the current state of things; the existing state of affairs.the way things are, as opposed to the way they
could be;
•bourgeoisie: The capitalist class.

Marxist Theory of Religion

The social-conflict approach is rooted in Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism. According to Marx, in a capitalist society,
religion plays a critical role in maintaining an unequal status quo, in which certain groups of people have radically
more resources and power than other groups of people. Marx argued that the bourgeoise used religion as a tool to
keep the less powerful proletariat pacified. Marx argued that religion was able to do this by promising rewards in the
after-life, instead of in this life. It was in this sense that Marx asserted the following. “Religion is the sigh of the
oppressed creature, the feeling of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless circumstances. It is the opium of the
people…The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness”
(p.72). In this passage, Marx is calling for the proletariat to discard religion and its deceit about other-worldly
events. Ms. HIBA KHAN
Only then would this class of people be able to rise up against the bourgeoisie and gain control of the means of
production, and only then would they achieve real rewards, in this life. Thus, the social-conflict approach to religion
highlights how religion, as a phenomenon of human behavior, functions to maintain social inequality by providing a
worldview that justifies oppression.

It should be reiterated here that Marx’s approach to sociology was critical in the sense that it advocated for change
in the world. This is in stark contrast to other scholars, many of whom pursue knowledge for knowledge’s sake, and
lack overt political aims. Because Marx was committed to criticizing the prevailing organization of society during his
time, he took a particularly aggressive stance towards religion. He believed that it was a tool of social control used
to maintain an unequal status quo, and that it should be abolished.

From the Marxist Perspective, religion does not only make the sufferings of life bearable, it also effectively creates
false consciousness.

Marx believed that the ‘objective’ truth was that the proletariat (i.e. most people) suffer deprivations because of their
exploitation by the Bourgeois (namely the extraction of surplus value empowers the minority Bourgeois class and
leaves the majority of the proletariat with insufficient money to lead a decent quality of life), however, people fail to
realise this because religion teaches them that all of the misery in life is God’s will.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Debates about the strengths and limitations of functionalist and
Marxist perspectives on religion

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Criticisms of functionalist

Methodological problems- an important question is how to operationalize the concept of function and religion.

For example, how do we know whether something such as religion is actually functional and, that is, whether
these functions outweigh any dysfunctions?
Functionalism also developed to explain social life in the 20th century. Today in many modern societies, notably
Europe and parts of North America, the majority of the population are not particularly ‘religious’ and do not
participate in collective religious ceremonies and services other than events such as weddings and funerals.

This does not necessarily invalidate traditional functionalists arguments about the function of religion (other forms
of collective ceremony, such as sporting events or musical festivals, may serve similar collective functions), it
suggests a need to re-evaluate the specific functions of religion.

There has been a shift away from explaining religion as functional to whole societies and towards defining its
functions for some individuals and groups.

This change of emphasis is based on the idea that societies today are characterized by cultural diversity.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
As a consequence, the social significance of organized religion, Christianity in particular, has declined and the
functions of religion are now more closely related to questions of personal identity.

Membership of a religious organization can, for example, to individuals by defining who they are promoting
clear moral guidelines and spiritual needs, which can be particularly important in times of rapid social change.

Functionalism focuses on what religion does for people and what society does any for of collective behavior
religion if it performs the required theoretically convenient because it explains the contradictions.

If religious observance is widespread in a society, functionalists take this as evidence that religion is fulfilling its
functions. It must be creating consensus because people are practicing their religion together. If religion
declines in a society, however, functionalists can explain this, arguing that other institutions have taken over
the functions. It thus becomes impossible to disprove the functionalist view.
-------
Religion does not always promote harmony: it can promote conflict: there may be conflicts within religion, or
between religions for example.
Ignores the role religion can play in promoting social change
Secularisation means that religion performs fewer functions today: thus functionalism may be less relevant.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
Evidence to support Marxism

There is a considerable body of historical evidence which supports the Marxist view of the role of religion in society: for
example the traditional caste system in India was supported by Hindu religious believes (in reincarnation for example); and
in Medieval Europe Kings ruled by the ‘divine right of God’. Possibly the most ‘extreme’ example, however, is in ancient
the ancient Egyptian belief which held that Pharaohs were both men and gods at the same time.

A more recent example, drawn from the USA, lies in the support that Republican politicians have enjoyed from the ‘New
Christian Right’ who, according to Steve Bruce (1988), support ‘a more aggressive anti-communist foreign policy, more
military spending, less welfare spending and fewer restraints on enterprise’.
The new Christian right have persistently supported more right wing (neo) liberal candidates – such as Ronald Regan in
1984 and George Bush in 2004 – when the later was elected, an exit poll found that two thirds of voters who attended church
more than once a week had voted for him.

While it might be debatable how successful the religious right in the USA are in getting their candidates elected to political
power, what does seem clear is that they do tend to support more economically powerful sectors of the political elite,
suggesting support for the Marxist view of religion.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Marxist criticisms view of religion:

Turner (1983) argued that if we measure religious conviction in terms of things such as church attendance and
membership of religious groups, the working classes have never been very involved in religious participants.

Contemporary/modern societies are less religious, so false consciousness should be weaker, yet there has not
been a great increase in questioning of the capitalist economic system.

If religion functions to support the status quo and prevent social change, it can be difficult to explain its important
role in some secular conflicts, such as the Iranian Revolution of 1979 or the US civil rights movement, or religious
movements advocating revolutionary change, such as liberation theology.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Counter Arguments
In response to criticisms and to changing circumstances, neo-Marxists have adapted traditional Marxist view
to try to explain religion in contemporary societies, using the concept of dominance (hegemony).

For Gramsci (1934), hegemony involves the idea that beliefs about the world that benefit a ruling class are not
simply imposed by religious organizations.

Rather, ruling groups maintain their dominant position through the consent of those lower down the social
scale. This social acceptance is itself is manufactured by cultural institutions such as religion, education and
the media – the ideological state apparatuses.

All, in their different ways, transmit messages supporting the status quo. One common message, for example,
is that there are allowed (legitimate) ways to express dissent, such as voting for a change of government.

These forms of expression never directly challenge the economic status quo and the hegemony of the ruling
class.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Hegemony makes it possible for religious ideas to be seen as influential in contemporary societies without
necessarily having to show that the majority of people either believe or support them.

In fact, they may accept those ideas because they are powerless to challenge or change them.

Neo-Marxists see religion as much as a source of unity for a ruling class and as a way of oppressing the
working-class.

Shared religious beliefs and practices represent one way in which the various elements of a ruling class come to
see themselves as a ‘class apart’ with common political, ideological and economic interests.

Religion provides a set of moral guidelines for ruling-class behavior, in relation to things such as marriage and
the inheritance of property, that enable it to reproduce both itself and its domination of society.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Moreover…

Firstly, it is clear that religion does not always prevent social change by creating false class consciousness. There are plenty
of examples of where oppressed groups have used religion to attempt (whether successful or not is moot here) to bring about
social change, as we will see in the neo-Marxist perspective on religion.

Secondly, religion still exists where there is (arguably) no oppression: the USSR communist state placed limits on the
practice of religion, including banning religious instruction to children, however, religious belief remained stronger in the
20th century in Russia and Eastern Europe than it did in the capitalist west.

Thirdly, and building on the previous point: just because religion can be used as a tool of manipulation and oppression, this
does not explain its existence: religion seems to be more or less universal in all societies, so it is likely that it fulfills other
individual and social needs, possibly in a more positive way as suggested by Functionalist theorists such as Durkheim,
Malinowski, and Parsons.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Religion as a source of social change

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Weber’s theory of the role of religion in the rise of capitalism
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Weberian approaches focus less on what religion does (its function or ideological purpose) and more on what it
means for:
 Individuals: this involves studying, for example, the motivations, behaviors and beliefs of those who classify
themselves as religious.
 Society: this aspect looks at ‘collective religious beliefs’ existing in a particular society and how these influence
the development of cultural identities, legal systems or, in Weber’s (1905) case, a complete economic system
(capitalism).
Weber wanted to understand why capitalism developed in some societies, such as England, but not others, even
though they had reached similar levels of economic and technological development.

He argued that it was a particular form of Protestant religion called Calvinism that provided the ‘final push’,
allowing England to change, in the 16th century, from a relatively poor, agriculture-based, pre-modern society into a
wealthy, modern, industrial society.

It is Calvinism that provided the ‘spirit of capitalism’ – a powerful set of ideas, beliefs and practices that promoted a
strong and lasting social transformation. The basis of this ‘spirit’
Ms. HIBA KHAN was predestination.
Calvinists believed that God would know, before individuals were born, if they were destined to achieve salvation.
Nothing a person did in the course of their life could change this situation. However, because God would not
allow sinners into heaven, the way to prove that you were destined for heaven would be, as Bental (2004) notes,
to ‘associate morality and Godliness with hard work, thriftiness, and the reinvestment of money’. In basic terms,
those destined for salvation had to be:

 Successful (throughout life)

 Hard-working
 Moral
 Thrifty (careful about how you spent your money)
 Modest
Weber argued that these were just the kinds of attributes required to develop capitalism, an economic system
built on the creation and reinvestment of profits to make sure of long-term business success.

Weber’s analysis of social transformations points more directly to evidence that religion can start social change.

In contrast with Marx, Weber argues that religion is not necessarily a conservative force. On the contrary,
religiously inspired movements have often produced dramatic social transformations, such as the transformation
from feudal to capitalist society and, in particular, the example of Britain as the first society to undergo this
transformation. Ms. HIBA KHAN
The aim was to understand how and why capitalism developed in some societies but not others, even though
they had similar levels of economic and technological development.

For example, China and the Roman Empire once had advanced technologies for their time, yet both of them
remained feudal societies. Weber suggested that religion, in the form of Calvinism, provided the ‘final push’
that allowed a society with a particular level of technological development to break through the barrier dividing
pre-modern, agricultural based, feudal societies from modern, industrial, capitalist societies.

Calvinism, Weber argued, provided the necessary ‘spirit of capitalism’ – a set of ideas and practices that
promoted a strong and lasting social transformation.

Religion was a source of social change because, in this instance, two things came together at the right
moment:
 Technological changes that provided opportunities to create wealth in a new and dynamic way.

 A social group (Calvinists) with an ideology that allowed these opportunities to be exploited.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

As Bental puts it: ‘Calvinists associated morality and Godliness with hard work, thriftiness and reinvestment of
money. Given Western Europe and America served as home for these people, should we be surprised capitalism
took off in the West?’

Alternative views about the relationship between religion and the origins of capitalism

Weber’s analysis of the relationship between religion and social change is an example of how meaning influences
social action – a belief in predestination led to the development of specific behavioral norms. However, the
argument that Calvinism and the Protestant ethic of hard work and constant reinvestment was a cause of
capitalism has been questioned:

Tawney (1926) argued that capitalism came into being through technological developments that revolutionized
how goods could be produced and distributed.

Fanfani (2003) argues that capitalism developed in some areas of Europe where Calvinism was not a religious
force.

Viner (1978) claimed that where Calvinism was the dominant religion it acted as a conservative force that
prevented economic development and change. Calvinist Scotland, for example, developed capitalism much later
than Protestant England.
Ms. HIBA KHAN
These ideas point towards a general principle: while structural theory suggests that religion is a conservative
social force, action theories generally argue that religion can be a force for change.

In this respect, contemporary Weberian analyses look at how religion can be a focus for dissent, a channel
through which discontent can be expressed.

 Liberation theology: Bruneau and Hewitt (1992), for example, argued that in Brazil the Catholic Church
became a ‘vehicle for working with the poor’ as a way of promoting social and economic changes.

 The Arab Spring: in 2011, many Arab countries experienced pro-democracy protests on a huge scale. In
Egypt, for example, religious organizations such as the Muslim Brotherhood played an important role in
organizing and channeling dissent before eventually being elected into government.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Liberation theology as an example of religion acting as a vehicle for social change

Liberation theology developed in South American countries such as Brazil in the 1950s and 1960s. It brought
together Christian theology and Marxism to emphasize social concern for the poor and the need for
revolutionary social change.

Some Catholic priests formed political alliances with revolutionary groups to oppose government policies,
against the wishes of the Catholic Church hierarchy. Some governments of the time, such as the military
dictatorship in Brazil, were not only forcing down living conditions but were also repressive and violent,
torturing and killing political opponents.

Liberation theology priests who became involved with trade unions, politics and sometimes revolutionary
movements were taking great risks. Among those killed for their beliefs was Archbishop Oscar Romero in El
Salvador, murdered while saying, mass in a cancer hospice in 1980.

One common way that priests and nuns acted on their beliefs was to move into poor neighborhoods such as
the growing slums in cities such as Rio de Janeiro and work with local people to improve conditions through,
for example, reading (literacy) programs and raising political awareness. Liberation theology was applied in
different ways in different places, including in defenseMs.ofHIBA
native
KHAN communities.
Supporters of liberation theology saw it as a return to the roots of the original church, arguing that Jesus had sided
with the poor and the oppressed.

As Bruneau and Hewitt argue: ‘For its proponents, the theology of liberation becomes the only way to understand
the church and its mission; the church must be involved, it must opt for the poor, and it must use its resources to
assist the poor in their liberation. Churches, for their part, become the privileged vehicle to work with the poor and
promote their awareness, mobilization and organization’.

In some countries, including Brazil, liberation theology did lead to progressive social changes, and played a part in
the gradual move of many Latin American countries from dictatorship to democracy. In the health program in Nova
Lguacu, near Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Catholic priests organized the local community against lack of food
(malnutrition), open sewers and other health hazards.

Liberation theology has been controversial, with the Roman Catholic hierarchy criticizing some aspects such as
the Marxist emphasis on class struggle. Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology as a distortion of
Christianity. Although it is difficult to evaluate the success or otherwise of liberation theology in bringing about
social change, its existence does suggest that religions may play a role in any multi-casual explanation of change.
This challenges Marx’s view that religion is always a conservative force.
Otto Maduro, a Marxist Catholic sociologist, believed that religion could and should be a force for the liberation of
Ms. HIBA KHAN
the poor and of minorities.
The influence of religious movements on political debated and struggles, examined through case
studies such as the Evangelical movement in US politics or the influence of the Ayatollahs in the
Iranian revolution

According to traditional Marxism, while religion plays an important role in managing social change, it does not
start the change.

Social change is caused by economic conflicts between and within social classes.

Religious ideas play a significant role only in relation to the abilities of powerful economic classes to use such
ideas as a basis for change

Ms. HIBA KHAN

Marxist- Engels argues that religion can prevent change by disguising inequality – refer to Marxist theory of religion. On the
other hand he argues that religion can challenge the status quo and encourage social change.
Bloch argues religion can be an expression of the principle of hope. Their religion gives the streams of a better future – a form
of Utopia. And others can deceive us in may help us try and picture a better world and this combined with good organisation and
leadership can lead to social change. A huge example of this is Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement also Leymah
Gbowee and her success at ending the civil war in Liberia.

The emphasis in liberation theology is Praxis – practical action guided by theory. Liberation theology led to social change as it is
created based communities, the church was a protective shield and educated the poor.

Neo-Marxist interpretation
Maduro – religion can be revolutionary force that brings about change
Löwy – questions Marxist view that religion always legitimates social inequality.

Gramsci: religion and hegemony

Gramsci was a sociologist during the Fascist regime in Italy. He argues that the ruling class maintain power in society through
hegemony. Hegemony is the ideological domination of ideas in society. Once established he argues that the ruling class
maintain power by relying on popular consent.
Although, Gramsci argues that hegemony can never be guaranteed as a working class can develop an alternative vision of
society – a counter hegemony. For example the revolution in Libya would be an example of counter hegemony because
members of the society no longer agree with the ideas of their government. Gramsci argues that the dual nature of religion has
the ability to help workers through the ruling class hegemony in their society. He sees clergymen as organic intellectuals –
educators, organisers and leaders I can help workers see through their situation and create working-class organisations such as
trade unions. All these help build a counter hegemony and threaten ruling class domination.

NOTE: Most of his theories came to being while he was put in prison by the Mussolini – could Gramsci have had a political
bias? Ms. HIBA KHAN
Evangelical movements in the USA:
Evangelicalism: the public spreading of Christian beliefs. Used to refer to a broad movement within Protestant Christianity which
emphasizes the truth of the bible and the idea of being ‘Born again’.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5fVpuJq8j3o - Al Jazeera TV – Evangelical beliefs still influence US politics

Evangelicalism has been important throughout the history of the USA. It derives from Protestantism, and has a
strong emphasis on the need to be ‘born again’ and on the literal truth of the bible.
Although it has in the past been associated at times with progressive causes such as the ending of slavery, after
the Second World War evangelicalism became linked to the far right in politics.
There is a ‘religious right’ – the New Christian Right (NCR) – that include loose-knit groups such as the Moral
Majority and, more recently, the politically conservative Tea Party political movement.
The Tea Party combines specific and selective forms of ‘religious correctness’ with attempts to legitimize a
particular political ideology that is authoritarian, anti-democratic and does not tolerate difference.
It involves the teaching of creationism (a literal belief in the creation myth of the Christian bible) in schools, bans on
sex education and putting scientific ideas, such as evolution or global warming, second to religious teachings.
The NCR played a significant role in the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 as US President and of Trump in 2016.
Its role in politics was analyzed by Steve Bruce, using statistical data and interviews with NCR activists.
He concluded that it had achieved only limited success because it had needed to compromise with other religious
groups, such as conservative Roman Catholics and Jews, leading to tensions that hampered it.
Bruce says that this shows that fundamentalist movements cannot in a modern plural society succeed in bringing
about social change because they do not connect with widely
Ms. HIBA KHAN held beliefs about democracy, equality and religious
freedom.
5 Ways Religion Can Influence Political Beliefs

LaMothe proposes five types of religious-political experience at the individual level.

In the first type, religion has a “lingering influence” on a person’s political beliefs. This means that people early on in
their life identified with a religion but later on converted out of it. Because they were part of a particular religion so
early on in life, that religion’s symbols and narratives have been engrained in their mindset, even though they have
since abandoned the tradition.

In fact, political ideology may even replace a person’s religion. For example, a religious goal of loving one’s
neighbor may translate into secular political activism such as fighting for the poor, and a political activist could
dedicate his life to the poor in the same way a person might dedicate himself to a religion.

The second type reverses the first: a person starts with no religious affiliation and converts to a religion, with the
net effect that his political beliefs shift. This includes people raised in a nominally religious family—a family that
goes to church on the major religious holidays, but for the most part lives a secular life.

Once a child from such a family converts to a religion, or participates in his family’s religion in a dedicated way, his
political sensibilities could readily change, due to the influence of the religious community and religious beliefs.

Ms. HIBA KHAN

LaMothe’s third type involves no religious conversion, but simply consists of a children keeping their family’s
religious lifestyle but applying it to the political sphere in a way foreign to their family. To put it more succinctly,
religion fuels political activism. A current example of this, according to LaMothe, is liberation theology in South
America. Liberation theology is a political movement driven by certain Roman Catholic clergy to improve the
conditions of the poor in South America. These clergy say that their Catholicism commits them to aiding the poor,
and thus their religion leads them to political activism.

The fourth type places the primacy on the political rather than the religious experience of an individual. While an
individual may hold to a religion ostensibly, the degree to which the individual is really engaged with religion is
unclear. Although such a person may derive some inspiration from religion, what ultimately drives and motivates this
person are political stances. Religion takes a backseat to politics. Notice how in the first type, the individual
consciously rejected religion, yet religion had a lingering effect on political views, while in this fourth type the
individual claims to belong to a religion, but religion has no detectable effect.

The fifth and final type places absolute primacy on the religious over the political, because in this type religious
experience leads people to reject the political realm altogether. Since the focus here is on individuals, religious
groups like the Amish are excluded, because it is a religious community centered around sequestering themselves
from the outside. Rather, in the fifth type, individuals have a religious encounter that convinces them to estrange
themselves as much as possible from the political happenings around them. Religion here excludes political
involvement.
These five types make clear that religion has no clear or necessary connection with political beliefs or activism. Sometimes
religion leads to more political involvement, sometimes none at all, and still other times the political involvement affects
religion. If anything, the mix of religion and politics should be loathed not because one corrupts the other, but because the
Ms. HIBA KHAN
result is so unpredictable.
Further reading – important

How Christian media is shaping American politics

https://theconversation.com/how-christian-media-is-shaping-american-politics-95910

Ms. HIBA KHAN

The Ayatollahs in the Iranian Revolution

Azad (1995) applied a similar analysis to social transformations such as the Iranian Revolution (1979).

The overthrow of the ‘old order’ – a tyrannical, secular dictatorship, supported by countries such as the UK
and the USA – occurred through an alliance of ‘progressive elements’ among the working classes, such as
intellectuals and students, and Islamic religious organizations.

Only after the Shah was deposed, Azad argues, did a power struggle for control emerge in which religious
leaders such as the Ayatollah Khomeini proved stronger than secular leaders.

In this example, the struggle for power was primarily political and ideological, because no major economic
transformation took place in Iran:

‘In 1979 the Iranian economy was a capitalist economy. Sixteen years later, despite many religious edicts,
that is still its essence.’
Ms. HIBA KHAN