Digestive System

Muhammad Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives

At the completion of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Define the digestive system and list its functions
• Identify the various organs of digestive system
• Describe the anatomy & physiology of digestive organs
• Discuss the role of accessory organs in digestion
• Discuss digestion of food in
• Mouth
• Stomach
• Small intestines
• Large intestines
• Discuss the absorption of nutrients in the digestive system
• Discuss the process of defecation.
 Functions of Digestive System
• Ingestion—taking food and liquid
• Digestion—mechanical and chemical
• Absorption—into blood and lymph
• Defecation—elimination of feces
 Digestive System
• Digestive system has two subdivisions:
Digestive tract
– Upto 9 meters (30 feet) long
– It consists of mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus,
Stomach, Small intestine, and Large intestine.
Accessory organs

• It includes Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands, Liver,

Gallbladder, and Pancreas.
Digestive system
Salivary Glands
 Salivary Glands
• Divided into major and minor glands
 Major Salivary Glands
• Parotid --- paired and the largest
• Submandibular --- single
• Sublingual---single and the smallest
 Minor salivary glands
• There are about 450 minor salivary glands
situated in the mucosa of lips, cheeks, palate,
floor of mouth, and retromolar region.
 Composition of Saliva
• Total amount is 1500 ml/day
• 99 % water and 1 % dissolved substances (organic
and inorganic).
• Ptyaline or salivary amylase, secreted from parotid
• Ligual lipase acting on triglycerides
• Mucin, a glycoprotein is secreted by sublingual and
submandibular gland.
• Inorganic substances include Na+, K+, Ca++, HCO3-
and Cl-
 Functions of Saliva
• Lubrication and speech
• Appreciation of taste—only saliva soluble food can stimulate
the taste buds.
• Digestion---- starch is converted into maltose
• Defense--- Lysozyme and IgA
• Clinical Terms:
• Sialorrhea (hypersalivation)
• Xerostomia...dry mouth
• Sjogren's (SHOW-grins) syndrome is an autoimmune disorder
characterized by two most common symptoms — dry eyes and
dry mouth.
 General Anatomy of Digestive Tract
• Most of the digestive tract consists of four layers,
in order from inner to outer surface:
1. Mucosa
• Is a mucous membrane lining the lumen.
• It has three layers as
i. Epithelium : coming in direct contact with food
ii. Lamina propria: Loose connective tissue layer
iii. Muscularis mucosa: smooth muscle thin layer
(inner circular and outer longitudinal layer)
 Layers of GI Tract cont..

• The lamina propria (lamina=thin plate; propria =

own) is areolar/loose connective tissue having
blood and lymphatic vessels for absorption.
• It overlies mucosa
 GI layers cont…

2. Submucosa
• Formed by areolar connective tissue that binds mucosa
to muscularis externa.
• It has a network of (auto) neurons called submucosal
plexus (Meissner Plexus ), glands and lymphatic tissues.
3. Muscularis Externa
• Consists of two layers of smooth muscles as inner circular
and outer longitudinal layers.
• In between the two layers is a myenteric Plexus/
Auerbach plexus
• The involuntary contraction of circular and longitudinal
smooth muscles help break down and propulsion of food
 GI Layers cont…

4. Serosa
• Serosa means serous membrane, the outermost layer.
• It is also called the visceral peritoneum.
• It begins in the lower 3 to 4 cm of the esophagus and
ends with the sigmoid colon.
• The oral cavity, pharynx, most of the esophagus and
the rectum are surrounded by a connective tissue layer
called adventitia.
• The esophagus, stomach, and intestines have a nervous
network called the enteric nervous system which
regulates digestive tract motility, secretion, and blood
flow.
 Neurons of Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
• Neurons of the ENS are arranged into two groups.
• A. Submucosal Plexus or Meissner Plexus
• B. Myenteric Plexus or Auerbach plexus
found between circular and longitudinal smooth
muscles of muscularis externa.
 Gastric secretions

• Gastric secretion is a colorless, watery, acidic,

produced in the stomach .
• Physical properties;
• It is a watery fluid, that has a pale color, pH is 1-3.
• the volume secreted per day is 2-3 L .
• Chemical composition; It is 97-99% water , it
contains inorganic salts ,and organic components
that include, mucin, digestive enzymes, hormones
 Gastric Glands and secretions
• The gastric secretion is produced by the epithelial
cells of the gastric glands.
 Goblet cells or mucus cells: mucous cells,
which cover the entire lumenal surface.
• These cells secrete a bicarbonate-rich mucus
that coats and lubricates the gastric surface, and
serves an important role in protecting the
epithelium from hydrochloric acid and pepsin
and other chemical damage.
 Gastric Glands and secretions
• Parietal or oxyntic cells: They secret HCl
into the stomach lumen where it establishes an
extremely acidic environment.
• This acid is important for activation of pepsinogen
and inactivation of ingested microorganisms such
as bacteria.
• They also secret the intrinsic factor, a
glycoprotein which is necessary for intestinal
absorption of vitamin B12.
 Gastric Glands and secretions cont..

• Chief cells: they secrete pepsinogen(zymogen).

Once secreted, pepsinogen is activated by stomach
acid into the active protease pepsin, which initiates
digestion of proteins in the stomach.
• In young animals, chief cells also secrete rennin a
protease that helps coagulate milk allowing it to be
retained more than briefly in the stomach.
– The epithelium cells also produce important
hormone gastrin, a peptide that is important in
control of acid secretion and gastric motility, and
somatostatin.
Exocrine gland cells of gastric pits

Produce alkaline
mucus that covers
mucosa layer

Synthesize and
secrete the protease
precursor known as
pepsinogen.

Synthesize and
secrete the HCl acid
responsible for the
acidic pH in the
gastric lumen.

20
 Gastric secretion phases
Gastric acid secretion can be divided into three phases:
 Cephalic phase
• mediated by the CNS and triggered by sight, smelling,
chewing or even the thought of food. Mediated by the
vagus and accounts for 10-30% of the acid secretion.
 Gastric phase
• triggered by the presence of food in the stomach (both
chemical and mechanical sensing are involved). Accounts
for 70-90% of acid secretion
 Intestinal phase
• Presence of chyme, most probably amino acids, in the
intestine triggers approximately 5% of the gastric acid
secretion.
 Gastric and Peptic Ulcers

• Peptic ulcers:
– Erosions of the mucous membranes of the stomach or
duodenum produced by action of HCl.
• Zollinger-Ellison syndrome:
– Ulcers of the duodenum are produced by excessive gastric
acid secretions.
• Helicobacter pylori:
– Bacteria that reside in GI tract and may produce ulcers.
• Acute gastritis:
– Histamine released by tissue damage and inflammation
stimulate further acid secretion.
Stomach
Stomach
Stomach
 Function of the Stomach
• The stomach performs three main functions:
1. Store ingested food.
2. Secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes
that begin protein digestion.
3. The ingested food is pulverized and mixed with
gastric secretions to produce a thick liquid
mixture known as chyme.
Functional Anatomy of Liver and Biliary System

• Liver is the largest gland in the body

• Hepatic Lobes:
• Right lobe
• Left lobe
• Quadrate lobe
• Caudate lobe
• Hepatic Lobules:
• Hepatic Lobule is the structural and functional unit of
liver.
• There are 50,000 to 100,000 lobules in the liver
• Hepatic lobule is a honeycomb like structure which is
made up of hepatocytes.
• Hepatic Plates:
• Hepatocytes are arranged in columns which form
hepatic plates.
• Each plate is made up of two columns of hepatocytes.
• In between two columns of each plate lies a bile
canaliculus.
• In between the plates, a blood space called sinusoid is
present.
• Sinusoid is lined by the endothelial cells along with
macrophages in between the cells.
Posterior view
Liver
 Gallstone
• Gallstone is a solid crystal deposit that is
formed by cholesterol, calcium ions and bile
pigments in the gallbladder or bile duct.
Cholelithiasis is the presence of gallstones in
gallbladder. Choledocholithiasis is the
presence of gallstones in the bile ducts.