Chapter 10:

Phase Transformations

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Transforming one phase into another takes time.

Fe Fe C

3
Eutectoid
transformation (cementite)
(Austenite) +

C FCC (BCC)
(ferrite)

• How does the rate of transformation depend on

time and T ?
• How can we slow down the transformation so that
we can engineer non-equilibrium structures?
• Are the mechanical properties of non-equilibrium
structures better?
Chapter 10 - 1
Characteristics of Transformations

Chapter 10 - 2
 Phase Transformations
Nucleation
– nuclei (seeds) act as template to grow crystals
– for nucleus to form rate of addition of atoms to
nucleus must be faster than rate of loss
– once nucleated, grow until reach equilibrium
Driving force to nucleate increases as we increase T
– supercooling (eutectic, eutectoid)
– superheating (peritectic)

Small supercooling  few nuclei - large crystals

Large supercooling  rapid nucleation - many nuclei,
small crystals

Chapter 10 - 3
 Solidification: Nucleation Processes

• Homogeneous nucleation
– nuclei form in the bulk of liquid metal
– requires supercooling (typically 80-300°C max)
• Heterogeneous nucleation
– much easier since stable “nucleus” is already
present
• Could be wall of mold or impurities in the liquid
phase
– allows solidification with only 0.1-10ºC
supercooling

Chapter 10 - 4
 Homogeneous Nucleation & Energy Effects
Surface Free Energy- destabilizes
the nuclei (it takes energy to make
an interface)
GS  4r 2 
 = surface tension

GT = Total Free Energy

= GS + GV

Volume (Bulk) Free Energy –

stabilizes the nuclei (releases energy)
4
GV  r 3 G
3
volume free energy
G 
unit volume
r* = critical nucleus: nuclei < r* shrink; nuclei>r* grow (to reduce energy)
Adapted from Fig.10.2(b), Callister 7e. Chapter 10 - 5
 Critical Nucleus Size
r* = critical radius
 2 Tm = surface free energy
r* 
HS T Tm = melting temperature
HS = latent heat of solidification
T = Tm - T = supercooling

Note: HS = strong function of T

 = weak function of T

 r* decreases as T increases

For typical T r* ca. 100Å

Chapter 10 - 6
f10_06_pg320 Chapter 10 - 8
f10_04_pg316

Chapter 10 - 9
 Chapter 10 - 10
f10_07_pg321
 Chapter 10 - 11
f10_08_pg321
f10_09_pg322

Chapter 10 - 12
 Information Available from
Transformation Curves
• The size of the product phase particles will depend
on transformation temperature.
• Transformations that occur at temperatures near to
Tm correspond to low nucleation and high growth
rates, few nuclei form that grow rapidly. (coarse grain
structure)
• Transformations at lower temperatures, nucleation
rates are high and growth rates low, which results in
many small particles (e.g., fine grains).
• It is possible to produce non-equilibrium phase
structures, when materials are cooled very rapidly, to
a relatively low temperature where the transformation
rate is extremely low.

Chapter 10 - 13
 Rate of Phase Transformations

Kinetics - measure approach to equilibrium vs.

time
• Hold temperature constant & measure
conversion vs. time
How is conversion measured?
X-ray diffraction – have to do many samples
electrical conductivity – follow one sample
sound waves – one sample

Chapter 10 - 14
The tensile strength of an iron–carbon alloy
of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt% C) can be
varied between approximately 700 MPa
(100,000 psi) - 2000 Mpa (300,000 psi)
depending on the heat treatment employed!

Chapter 10 - 15
 Rate of Phase Transformation
Fraction transformed, y
All out of material - done
Fixed T
0.5 maximum rate reached – now amount
unconverted decreases so rate slows
rate increases as surface area increases
t0.5 & nuclei grow

log t Adapted from

Fig. 10.10,
Callister 7e.
Avrami rate equation => y = 1- exp (-ktn)
fraction time
transformed
– k & n fit for specific sample

By convention r = 1 / t0.5
Chapter 10 - 16
 Rate of Phase Transformations
Adapted from Fig.
10.11, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.11 adapted
135C 119C 113C 102C 88C 43C from B.F. Decker and
D. Harker,
"Recrystallization in
Rolled Copper", Trans
AIME, 188, 1950, p.
888.)
1 10 102 104

• In general, rate increases as T 

r = 1/t0.5 = A e -Q/RT
– R = gas constant
Arrhenius
– T = temperature (K) expression
– A = preexponential factor
– Q = activation energy
• r often small: equilibrium not possible! Chapter 10 - 17
 Eutectoid Transformation Rate
• Growth of pearlite from austenite: Diffusive flow
of C needed
Austenite () cementite (Fe3C)
grain  Ferrite () 
boundary  
  
 
Adapted from pearlite 

Fig. 9.15,
Callister 7e.  growth
direction 
• Recrystallization 100
y (% pearlite)
rate increases 600°C
(T larger)
with T. 50 650°C
675°C
Adapted from
Fig. 10.12,
(T smaller) Callister 7e.

Coarse pearlite  formed at higher T - softer

Fine pearlite  formed at low T - harder
Chapter 10 - 19
 Nucleation and Growth
• Reaction rate is a result of nucleation and growth
of crystals.
100 Nucleation rate increases with T
% Pearlite Growth
regime Growth rate increases with T
50 Nucleation
regime
Adapted from
0 t 0.5 log (time) Fig. 10.10, Callister 7e.

• Examples:
pearlite
 colony  

T just below TE T moderately below TE T way below TE

Nucleation rate slow Nucleation rate med  Nucleation rate fast
Growth rate fast Growth rate med. Growth rate slow

Chapter 10 - 20
Coarse vs. Fine Pearlite

Chapter 10 - 21
 Transformations & Undercooling
• Eutectoid transf. (Fe-C System):    + Fe3C
• Can make it occur at: 0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
...727ºC (cool it slowly) 0.022 wt% C
...below 727ºC (“undercool” it!)
T(°C)
1600
 Adapted from Fig.
9.24,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.24
1400 L adapted from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
  +L Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C in-Chief), ASM International,

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite) Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

1000
 Eutectoid:  +Fe3C
ferrite 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727°C
T  +Fe C 3
600
Undercooling by Ttransf. < 727C
0.022

0.76

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) Co , wt%C
Chapter 10 - 22
 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
• Fe-C system, Co = 0.76 wt% C
• Transformation at T = 675°C.
% transformed

100
T = 675°C
y,

50

0
1 10 2 10 4 time (s)
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
TE (727C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

600 Pearlite Adapted from Fig. 10.13,Callister 7e.

isothermal transformation at 675°C (Fig. 10.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
10 0
50%pearli

500
0%

Cooling Transformation Diagrams,

%

American Society for Metals, 1977, p.

369.)
400
time (s)
te

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 Chapter 10 - 23
Effect of Cooling History in Fe-C System
• Eutectoid composition, Co = 0.76 wt% C
• Begin at T > 727°C
• Rapidly cool to 625°C and hold isothermally.
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
TE (727C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

Adapted from Fig.

600 Pearlite 10.14,Callister 7e.
  (Fig. 10.14 adapted from
H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of
    Isothermal Transformation
10 0

and Cooling
5 0 % r l it e

500
0%

Transformation Diagrams,
pea

American Society for

Metals, 1997, p. 28.)

400

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
time (s)
Chapter 10 - 24
 Transformations with
Proeutectoid Materials
CO = 1.13 wt% C
T(°C) T(°C)
900 1600

A 1400 L
800

Fe3C (cementite)
+
A TE (727°C)   +L
1200 L+Fe3C
700 A C (austenite)
P 1000
A
+ P   +Fe3C
600
800
727°C
T  +Fe3C
500 600

0.022
0.76
1 10 102 103 104 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7

1.13
time (s) (Fe)
Co , wt%C
Adapted from Fig. 10.16, Adapted from Fig. 9.24,
Callister 7e. Callister 7e.

Hypereutectoid composition – proeutectoid cementite

Chapter 10 - 25
 Non-Equilibrium Transformation
Products: Fe-C
• Bainite:
-- lathes (strips) with long
rods of Fe3C
 Fe3C
--diffusion controlled.
(cementite)
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram (ferrite)
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A
TE
P
600 100% pearlite
pearlite/bainite boundary 5 m
(Adapted from Fig. 10.17, Callister, 7e. (Fig.
100% bainite 10.17 from Metals Handbook, 8th ed.,

400 A B Vol. 8, Metallography, Structures, and Phase

Diagrams, American Society for Metals,
Materials Park, OH, 1973.)

200
1 00
0%

50%

10-1 10 103 105

Adapted from Fig. 10.18, Callister 7e.

time (s)
(Fig. 10.18 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Chapter 10 - 26
Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1997, p. 28.)
 Spheroidite: Fe-C System

• Spheroidite: 
-- grains with spherical Fe3C (ferrite)
--diffusion dependent.
--heat bainite or pearlite for long times Fe3C
--reduces interfacial area (driving force) (cementite)

60 m
(Adapted from Fig. 10.19, Callister, 7e.
(Fig. 10.19 copyright United States
Steel Corporation, 1971.)

Chapter 10 - 27
 Martensite Formation

 (FCC) slow cooling  (BCC) + Fe3C

quench
tempering
M (BCT)

M = martensite is body centered tetragonal (BCT)

Diffusionless transformation BCT if C > 0.15 wt%

BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle

Chapter 10 - 28
 Martensite: Fe-C System
• Martensite:
--(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(involves single atom jumps)

60 m
x
Fe atom potential
x x
sites x x C atom sites
(Adapted from Fig.
x
10.20, Callister, 7e.

• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

800 Austenite (stable) Martensite needles
T(°C) TE Austenite
A
P (Adapted from Fig. 10.21, Callister, 7e.
600 (Fig. 10.21 courtesy United States
Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from
Fig. 10.22,
Callister 7e. 400 A B 10 •  to M transformation..
5 0 %
0 % 0% -- is rapid!
200 M+A
0% -- % transf. depends on T only.
50%
M+A 90%
M+A
10-1 10 103 105 time (s) Chapter 10 - 29
 Materials of Importance
A relatively new group of metals that exhibit
an interesting (and practical) phenomenon
are the shape-memory alloys (or SMAs).
One of these materials, after having been deformed,
has the ability to return to its pre-deformed size and
shape upon being subjected to an appropriate heat
treatment—that is, the material “remembers” its
previous size/shape!

Time-lapse photograph that demonstrates the shape memory

Deformation normally is carried out at a relatively effect. A wire of a shape-memory alloy
(Nitinol) has been bent and treated such that its
low temperature, whereas, shape memory occurs memory shape spells the word “Nitinol”. The wire is
upon heating. Materials are capable of recovering then deformed and, upon heating (by passage of an
electric current), springs back to its pre-deformed
after significant amounts of deformation. shape; this shape recovery process is recorded on the
photograph. [Photograph courtesy the Naval Surface
Warfare Center (previously the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory)].
A SMA may have two crystal structures (or phases),
and the shape-memory effect involves diffusion-less
phase transformations between them.

Chapter 10 - 30
Shape Memory Effect

Chapter 10 - 31
 Applications of SMAs
There is a host of applications for SMA alloys for example:
• eyeglass frames
• tooth-straightening braces
• collapsible antennas
• greenhouse window openers
• anti scald control valves on showers
• fire sprinkler valves
• self-extending coronary stents, and bone anchors.

Shape-memory alloys fall into the classification of “smart materials”

(Section 1.5) since they sense and respond to environmental changes
(i.e., temperature).

Chapter 10 - 32
 Phase Transformations of Alloys
Effect of adding other elements
Change transition temp.

Cr, Ni, Mo, Si, Mn

retard    + Fe3C
transformation

Adapted from Fig. 10.23, Callister 7e.

Chapter 10 - 33
Cooling Curve
plot temp vs. time

Adapted from
Fig. 10.25,
Callister 7e.

Chapter 10 - 34
Chapter 10 - 35
Chapter 10 - 36
 Dynamic Phase Transformations
On the isothermal transformation diagram for
0.45 wt% C Fe-C alloy, sketch and label the
time-temperature paths to produce the
following microstructures:
a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse
pearlite
b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite
c) 100% martensite
d) 50% martensite and 50% austenite

Chapter 10 - 37
 Example Problem for Co = 0.45 wt%
a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse pearlite

first make ferrite 800 A

A+

then pearlite T (°C)

A+P
600 P
B
coarse pearlite A+B
A
 higher T 400
M (start)
50%

M (50%)
M (90%)
200

Adapted from
Fig. 10.29,
Callister 5e. 0
0.1 10 103 105
time (s)
Chapter 10 - 38
 Example Problem for Co = 0.45 wt%
b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite

800 A+
first make pearlite A
T (°C)
then bainite A+P
600 P
B
A+B
fine pearlite A
50%
400
 lower T M (start)
M (50%)
M (90%)
200

Adapted from
Fig. 10.29,
Callister 5e. 0
0.1 10 103 105
time (s)
Chapter 10 - 39
 Example Problem for Co = 0.45 wt%
c) 100 % martensite – quench = rapid cool
d) 50 % martensite
and 50 % 800
A
A+
austenite T (°C)
A+P
600 P
B
A+B
A
400 50%
M (start)
M (50%)
M (90%)
d)
200

Adapted from
Fig. 10.29,
c)
Callister 5e. 0
0.1 10 103 105
time (s)
Chapter 10 - 40
 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (1)
• Effect of wt% C Pearlite (med)
Pearlite (med) Cementite
ferrite (soft) (hard)
Adapted from Fig. 9.30,Callister Co < 0.76 wt% C Co > 0.76 wt% C Adapted from Fig. 9.33,Callister 7e.
7e. (Fig. 9.30 courtesy Republic
Steel Corporation.)
Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid (Fig. 9.33 copyright 1971 by United
States Steel Corporation.)

Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper

TS(MPa) %EL 80
1100

Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

YS(MPa) 100 Adapted from Fig.
10.29, Callister 7e.
900 (Fig. 10.29 based on
hardness data from Metals
40
700 Handbook: Heat
50 Treating, Vol. 4, 9th
ed., V. Masseria
500 (Managing Ed.),
0 American Society for
Metals, 1981, p. 9.)
300
1 0
0.76

0 0.5

0.76
0 0.5 1
wt% C wt% C
• More wt% C: TS and YS increase, %EL decreases.

Chapter 10 - 41
 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (2)
• Fine vs coarse pearlite vs spheroidite
Hypo Hyper 90 Hypo Hyper
320
fine

Ductility (%AR)
spheroidite
pearlite 60
Brinell hardness

240 coarse
pearlite
spheroidite
160 30 coarse
pearlite
fine
80 pearlite
0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
wt%C wt%C
Adapted from Fig. 10.30, Callister 7e.
• Hardness: fine > coarse > spheroidite (Fig. 10.30 based on data from Metals
Handbook: Heat Treating, Vol. 4, 9th
• %RA: fine < coarse < spheroidite ed., V. Masseria (Managing Ed.),
American Society for Metals, 1981, pp.
9 and 17.)

Chapter 10 - 42
 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (3)
• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:

Hypo Hyper

600
Brinell hardness

martensite
Adapted from Fig. 10.32,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 10.32 adapted
400 from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of
the Alloying Elements in Steel,
American Society for Metals,
1939, p. 36; and R.A. Grange,
200 C.R. Hribal, and L.F. Porter,
fine pearlite Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 8A, p.
1776.)
0
0 0.5 1
wt% C
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.

Chapter 10 - 43
 Tempering Martensite
• reduces brittleness of martensite,
• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800

1600 TS
Adapted from Adapted from
1400 YS

9 m
Fig. 10.34, Fig. 10.33,
Callister 7e. Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.34 1200 (Fig. 10.33
adapted from 60 copyright by
Fig. furnished United States
1000 50
courtesy of %RA %RA Steel
Republic Steel 40 Corporation,
Corporation.) 800 30
1971.)

200 400 600

Tempering T (°C)

• produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by 

• decreases TS, YS but increases %RA
Chapter 10 - 44
 Summary: Processing Options
Adapted from
Austenite () Fig. 10.36,
Callister 7e.

slow moderate rapid

cool cool quench

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

( + Fe3C layers + a ( + Fe3C plates/needles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation)

Martensite reheat
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
bainite Tempered
fine pearlite Martensite
coarse pearlite ( + very fine
spheroidite Fe3C particles)

General Trends Chapter 10 - 45

 Cast Iron
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting (1150-13000C cf > 15000C for steels)
(also brittle) so easiest to cast

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

Chapter 10 - 46
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
 +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200  1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
  + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
Adapted from Fig.
 + Graphite
11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2 400
adapted from Binary Alloy 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., (Fe) Co , wt% C
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

Chapter 10 - 47
 Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 10 - 48
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 10 - 49
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e.
Chapter 10 - 50
Taxonomy of Metals

Chapter 10 - 51
 Taxonomy of Steels
Low Carbon Steels: Contain < 0.25% Carbon; produced in greatest quantities, least
expensive, non heat treatable (unable to form Martensite). Soft, ductile and tough; typical
uses: Automobile body parts,sheets and cans.
High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA): Low Carbon steels, containing alloying
elements, e.g. Cu, V, Ni and Mo (combined conc. < 10%). Higher strength & corrosion
resistance cf. low carbon steels. Used in bridges, towers, pressure vessels &
support columns in high rise buildings.
Medium Carbon Steels: Contain 0.25-0.60% wt% Carbon, Can be heat treated by
austenitizing, quenching, tempering etc. Higher strength cf. low carbon steels, however
less tough and ductile. Used in railway wheels and tracks, gears and other structural
components requiring high strength, wear resistance and toughness.
High Carbon Steels: Contain 0.60-1.4 wt% Carbon; are the hardest, strongest and
least ductile of all steels. Almost always used in hardened and tempered condition. High
wear resistance and are capable of holding a cutting edge. Used in cutting tools, dies (for
shaping materials), knives, razors, blades, springs and high strength wires.
Stainless Steels: Contain atleast 11 wt% Cr; Highly resistant to corrosion in a variety of
environments. Typical uses: Steam boilers, heat treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles &
nuclear power generating units.
Chapter 10 - 52
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite

cementite
1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
1200  1148°C L+Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
austenite Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
+Fe3C 1990.)
+

800 727°C Fe3C



ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 10 - 53
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing – Steels - cast irons

Nomenclature AISI & SAE

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

Chapter 10 - 54
 Annealing
The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material
is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time
period and then slowly cooled.

Annealing is carried out to (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase

softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or (3) produce a specific
microstructure.

A variety of annealing heat treatments are possible; they are

characterized by the changes that are induced, which many times
are microstructural and are responsible for the alteration of the
mechanical properties.

Chapter 10 - 55
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
co c ry a in
ve sta Gr American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
ry lliz ow
ati th
on
Chapter 10 - 56
Influence of Annealing

Chapter 10 - 57
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases
y1 large hardening
as d increases: y0 small hardening


Chapter 10 - 59
Annealing of Ferrous Alloys

Chapter 10 - 60
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e.

Chapter 10 - 61
 Concept Check
Explain why, under some circumstances, it is not advisable to
weld a structure that is fabricated with a 3003 aluminum
alloy.

Strengthening of a 3003 aluminum alloy is accomplished by cold

working.

Welding a structure of a cold-worked 3003 alloy will cause it to

experience recrystallization, and a resultant loss of strength.

Chapter 10 - 62
 Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)

a) Annealing T(°C) TE
A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
10
0 %
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e. 50
0% %

0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%

b) a)
10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
time (s) Chapter 10 - 63
 Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials
(heated to  Science, McGraw-Hill Book
phase field) Rockwell C Company, New York,
1978.)
24°C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 10 - 64
 Why Hardness Changes W/Position
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 P 100%

A Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
400 Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
M(start) American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
200 376.)
A  M
Pe ine ens
0 M(finish) a r P it e
F
M
M ens

li t e e a +
ar
a r it e
t
t

rli Pe
te ar

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
l ite

Chapter 10 - 65
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60

Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% C 100

4340 80 %M
50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e.

8640

10
(Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished

40
5140
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) 20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(°C) TE
600 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 400 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". M(start)
200
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
Chapter 10 - 66
 Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 10 - 67
 Concept Check
Briefly explain why ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are
not heat treatable.
Ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are not heat treatable since
"heat-treatable" is taken to mean that martensite may be made to
form with relative ease upon quenching austenite from an elevated
temperature.
For ferritic stainless steels, austenite does not form upon heating,
and, therefore, the austenite-to-martensite transformation is not
possible.
For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite phase field extends to
such low temperatures that the martensitic transformation does not
occur.

Chapter 10 - 68
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocations.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
 +L
+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small  crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from
• Cu-Be Temp. J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate 
Adapted from Fig.
11.22, Callister 7e. Time
Pt B
Chapter 10 - 69
Chapter 10 - 70
 Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
ita ll
cip ma
“ag tes
”
ed
ion

pre ny s
so .

era itat e
lid uil
lut

“ov cip larg

so n-eq

30
ma

ge es
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
pre wer

d”
no

400 fe
20
300
149°C 10
200 204°C 149 °C
204°C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27 (a) and (b), Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Chapter 10 - 71
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
 Strategies for Strengthening:
3. Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: y ~
S
Chapter 10 - 72
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.)

1.5m
Chapter 10 - 73
 Summary
• Time Temperature Transformation diagrams
• Diffusive & Diffusion-less transformations
• How to design different microstructures without changing
composition of steel.
• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.
Chapter 10 - 74
.