EC1002-1: Applied Digital Logic

Design

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 Unit 1
Fundamentals of Digital Design

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 Digital and Analog Basic Concepts:
Analog Signals
•Amplitude
Distance above reference line
•Cycle
One complete wave
•Frequency
Cycles per second .Hertz is the unit used for expressing
frequency. Frequency: 1
F  T H z

Period
(T)
Amplitude
(peak)
Amplitude
(peak-to-peak)

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 Example of Analog Signals
⚫ An analog signal can be any time-varying signal.
⚫ Minimum and maximum values can be either positive
or negative.
⚫ They can be periodic (repeating) or non-periodic.
⚫ Sine waves and square waves are two common analog
signals.
⚫ Note that this square wave is not a digital signal
because its minimum value is negative.

0 volts

Sine Square Wave Random-Periodic

3 Wave (not digital)
 Digital and Analog Basic Concepts:
Digital Signals
Amplitude:
For digital signals, this will ALWAYS be 5volts.
Period:
The time it takes for a periodic signal to
repeat. (seconds)

Amplitude
Frequency:
A measure of the number of occurrences
of the signal per second. (Hertz, Hz)
Time High (tH):
The time the signal is at 5 v.
Time Low (tL): Period (T)
The time the signal is at 0 v.
Duty Cycle:
The ratio of tH to the total period (T). Frequency:
Rising Edge:
1 t
A 0-to-1 transition of the signal. F  T Hz DutyCycle  TH 100%
Falling Edge:
A 1-to-0 transition of the signal.
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 Example of Digital Signals
⚫ Digital signal are commonly referred to as square waves
or clock signals.
⚫ Their minimum value must be 0 volts, and their maximum
value must be 5 volts.
⚫ They can be periodic (repeating) or non-periodic.
⚫ The time the signal is high (tH) can vary anywhere from 1% of
the period to 99% of the period.

5 volts

0 volts

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 Differences of Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signals Digital Signals
⚫ Continuous both time ⚫ Discrete in time
and amplitude and quantized in amplitude
⚫ Infinite range of values ⚫ Finite range of values
⚫ More exact values, ⚫ Not as exact as analog,
but
more difficult to work with but easier to work with
⚫ Storing such a ⚫ Storing such a
requires signal amount
large of requires less signal
amount
⚫ memory
Processing requires large ⚫memory
Processing of
requires
processing power or more processing power low
time or time less
⚫ Transmitting requires ⚫ Transmitting requires a
a bandwidth
6 large less bandwidth than analog
 Number Systems
⚫ A number system defines how a number can
be represented using distinct symbols.
⚫ The number the numeral represents is called its
value.
⚫ A number can be represented differently in different

systems
⚫ For example, the two numbers (2A)16 and (52)8 both

refer to the same quantity, (42)10, but their

representations are different
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 Common Number Systems
Four number system
Decimal (10) , Binary (2), Octal (8) and Hexadecimal(16)

Used by Used in
System Base Symbols humans? computers?

Decimal 10(D) 0, 1, … 9 Yes No

Binary 2(B) 0, 1 No Yes

Octal 8(O) 0, 1, … 7 No No

Hexa- 16(H) 0, 1, … 9, No No
decimal A, B, … F
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 Decimal numbers
⚫ In the decimal number systems each of the ten digits, 0 through 9,

represents a certain quantity also known as base-10 number systems

⚫ The position of each digit in a decimal number indicates the magnitude of

the quantity represented and can be assigned a weight. The weights for

whole numbers are positive powers of ten that increases from right to left,

beginning with 10º = 1

⚫ For fractional numbers, the weights are negative powers of ten that

decrease from left to right beginning with 10−1.

1
0
 Decimal numbers

Base

10^4 10^3 10^2 10^1 10^0 10^-1 10^-2 10^-3

10000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

left of the decimal point Right of decimal point

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 Decimal numbers
⚫ Example: the value 725.194 is represented in expansion form as follows:

7 * 10^2 + 2 * 10^1 + 5 * 10^0 + 1 * 10^-1 + 9 * 10^-2 + 4 * 10^-3

= 7 * 100 + 2 * 10 + 5 * 1 + 1 * 0.1 + 9 * 0.01 + 4 * 0.001
= 700 + 20 + 5 + 0.1 + 0.09 + 0.004
= 725.194

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 Binary Numbers
• Most modern computer system using binary logic. The
computer represents values(0,1) using two voltage levels
(usually 0V for logic 0 and either +3.3 V or +5V for logic 1).
• The Binary Number System uses base 2 includes only the digits
0 and 1 . The position of a 1 or 0 in a binary number
indicates its weight, or value within the number, just as the
position of a decimal digit determines the value of that digit.
• With 4 digits position we can count from zero to 15. In general,
with n bits we can count up to a number equal to 2ⁿ - 1.
• Largest decimal number = 2 𝑛 - 1

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 Binary Numbers
• A binary number is a weighted number. The right-most bit is the
least significant bit (LSB) in a binary whole number and has a
weight of 2º =1. The weights increases from right to left by a
power of two for each bit. The left-most bit is the most
significant bit (MSB); its weight depends on the size of the
binary number.
• The weighted values for each position are : Base

2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0 2^-1 2^-2

32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25

left of the radix point Right of radix point

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 Octal Systems
• Computer scientists are often looking for shortcuts to do
things
• One of the ways in which we can represent
binary numbers is to use their octal equivalents instead
• This is especially helpful when we have to do
fairly complicated tasks using numbers
• The octal system is composed of eight digits, Known
as base-8 number systems which are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
• To count above 7, begin another column and start over:
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21 and so on.
• Counting in octal is similar to counting in decimal,
14 except
that the digits 8 and 9 are not used.
 Hexadecimal Numbers
• The hexadecimal number system has sixteen digits and is used
primarily as a compact way of displaying or writing binary
numbers because it is very easy to convert between binary and
hexadecimal.
• Long binary numbers are difficult to read and write because it
is easy to drop or transpose a bit. Hexadecimal is widely used in
computer and microprocessor applications.
• The hexadecimal system known as base-16 number systems,
• It is composed of 16 digits and alphabetic characters, which are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
• To count above 16, begin another column and start
over:
10, 11, 12, 13, 14…. 1D, 1E, 1F, 20, 21 and so on
• The maximum 3-digits hexadecimal number is FFF or decimal
4095 and maximum 4-digit hexadecimal number is FFFF or
decimal 65,535 16
Number Representation in different systems
Quantities/Counting (1 of
3) Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
Number Representation in different systems

Quantities/Counting (2 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
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Number Representation in different systems

Quantities/Counting (3 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17 Etc.
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 Number System Conversions
⚫The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Quick Example

2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916

Base

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 Decimal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Decimal to decimal

Weigh
t

12510 => 5 x 100 = 5

2 x 101 = 20
1 x 102 = 100
125

Base

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 Fractions

3.14 => 4 x 10-2 = 0.04

1 x 10-1 = 0.1
3 x 100 = 3
3.14

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 Binary to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Binary to Decimal

⚫ Technique
⚫ Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the
bit
⚫ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0
on the right
⚫ Add the results

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 Example
Bit “0”

1010112 => 1 x = 1
20
1 x = 2
0 x 21 = 0
1 x = 8
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 32

24 4310
27
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 Binary to Decimal

1101 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20
=1x8+1x4+0x2+1x1
=8+4+0+1

(1101)2 = (13)10

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512,

….

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Binary to decimal (Fractions)

10.1011 => 1 x = 0.0625

2-4
1 x = 0.125
0 x 2-3 = 0.0
1 x = 0.5
0 x 2-2 = 0.0
1 x 2-1 = 2.0

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21
2.6875 29
 Octal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Octal to Decimal

⚫ Technique
⚫ Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the
bit
⚫ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0
on the right
⚫ Add the results

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Example

7248 => 4 x 0 = 4
8
2 x = 16
7 x 81 = 448
46810
82

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 Octal to Decimal

137 = 1 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 7 x 80
= 1 x 64 + 3 x 8 + 7 x 1
= 64 + 24 +7

(137)8 = (95)10

⚫ Digits used in Octal number system – 0 to 7

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 Hexadecimal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Hexadecimal to Decimal
⚫ Technique
⚫ Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the
bit
⚫ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0
on the right
⚫ Add the results

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 Example

ABC16 =>C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
274810

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 Hex to Decimal
BAD = 11 x 162 + 10 x 161 + 13 x 160
= 11 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 13
x1
= 2816 + 160 + 13
(BAD)16 = (2989)10

A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

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 Number System Conversions
⚫ Decimal to Base-k [Successive division]

1. Divide the decimal number to be converted by ‘k’

2. The remainder from Step 1 is the least significant digit

3. Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the ‘k’

4. Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit

5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left,

until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

6. The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant

Digit

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 Number System Conversions

⚫ Decimal to Base-k [Successive Multiplication]

1. Multiply the fractional decimal number, to be converted, by ‘k’

2. The integer from Step 1 is the highest order digit

3. Multiply the fractional part from Step 1 by the ‘k’

4. Record the integer from Step 3 as the next digit

5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting integers from left to right, until

the fractional part becomes zero in Step 3.

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 Decimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
2 62 1
2 31
2 0
2 15
2 1
2 7
1
3
1
1
1
0
1
12510 = 11111012

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Decimal to Binary

2 13 1 LSB

2 6 0
2 3 1
2 1 1 MSB
0

(13)10 = (1101)2

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 Fractions
⚫ Decimal to binary .14579
x
3.14579 2
0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x
2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x
2
11.001001... 0.66528
x
2
1.33056
etc. 43
 Decimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Example
123410 = ?8
8 1234
154 2
8 19
8 22 3
8 0 2

123410 = 23228

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 Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Example

123410 = ?16
16 1234
16 77 2
16 4 13 = D
0

123410 = 4D216

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 Decimal to Hex

16 2989 13 LSP

16 186 10
16 11 11
0 MSP

(2989)10 = (BAD)16

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 Binary to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Binary to Octal
⚫ Technique

⚫ Binary to Octal [Integers]

1. Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

2. Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit

⚫ Binary to Octal [Fractions]

1. Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the radix
point).

2. Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit

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 Example
10110101112 = ?8
1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
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 Binary to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Binary to Hexadecimal
⚫ Technique
⚫ Binary to Hexadecimal [Integers]
1. Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
2. Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal digit

⚫ Binary to Hexadecimal [Fractions]

1. Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the radix
point).
2. Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal digit

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 Example
10101110112 = ?16

10 1011 1011

2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16
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 Octal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Octal to Hexadecimal
⚫ Technique
⚫ Use binary as an intermediary

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Example
10768 = ?16
1 7 6

0
001 000 111 110
2 3 E
10768 = 23E16

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 Hexadecimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Hexadecimal to Octal
⚫ Technique
⚫ Use binary as an intermediary

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Example
1F0C16 = ?8

1 0 C

F
0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

1F0C16 = 174148
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 Octal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Octal to Binary

⚫ Technique
⚫ Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent
binary representation

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 Example
7058 = ?2
7 0 5

111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012

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 Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Hexadecimal to Binary
⚫ Technique
⚫ Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit
equivalent binary representation

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 Example
10AF16 = ?2

1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112

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 LOGIC GATES
⚫ A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital
circuit.
⚫ Logic gates can be created using transistor technology, that

perform Boolean operations on high (5V) and low(0V)

signals.
⚫ There are seven logic gates:

⚫ Basic gates: AND, OR and NOT

⚫ Universal gates: NOR and NAND

⚫ Other gates : XOR and XNOR

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 AND GATE
For AND gate, if both the inputs are 1 the output is
1; otherwise, the output is 0.

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 OR GATE
OR Gate: For OR gate, if both the inputs are 0 the output is
0; otherwise, the output is1.

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 NOT GATE
NOT Gate: A NOT gate accepts one input signal (0 or 1)
and returns the complementary (opposite) signal as output.

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 NAND GATE
NAND Gate: For NAND (“NOT of AND”) gate, if both the
inputs are 1, the output is 0; otherwise, the output is 1.

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 NOR GATE
NOR Gate: The NOR (“NOT of OR”) gate, if both the
inputs are 0, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0.

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 XOR GATE
XOR Gate: For XOR gate, if both the inputs are same, the
output is 0; otherwise, the output is 1.

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 XNOR GATE
XNOR Gate: For XNOR gate, if both the inputs are
same, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0.

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PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA

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BASIC RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

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Proof For A+𝐴 B =
A+B
A+𝐴B = A.1 + 𝐴
B
= A(1+B) + 𝐴 B
= A + AB + 𝐴 B
= A + B (A + 𝐴)

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Proof For (A+B)(A+C) = A+BC

(A+B)(A+C) = A.A + A.C + B.A +

B.C
= A + A.C + B.A + BC
= A(1+C)+ BA +BC
= A + BA + BC
= A(1+B) + BC
= A +BC

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DeMorgan’s
Theorems
(i)
(ii)

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 EXAMPLES
1. Implement the Boolean Expression
using basic Gates

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2. Simplify the boolean expression
and realize using basic gates.

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3. Write the boolean expression for the given logic diagram

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Simplifying Boolean expressions using NAND
only and NOR only

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84
 Definition of Combinational Logic
• Combinational Logic deals with the techniques
of “combining” the basic gates into circuits
that performs some desired function.
• Examples – Adders, Subtractors, Decoders.
Encoders, Multipliers etc
• Logic circuits without feedback from output
to input.
• Logic circuits that contain no memory

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86
General Logic Design Sequence

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Problem statements to Truth Table

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89
90
Combinational Logic Specification
• Three ways
1. Logic Diagram: Graphical representation
2. Truth Table: A list that shows all the output states in tabular
form for each possible combination of input variable.
3. Boolean Equations: Algebraic expression showing the
operation of the logic circuit for each input variable.

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 Boolean Equations

• Also known as Switching equations

• A literal is a Boolean Variable or its complement (a, x’, z)
• A product term is a literal or the logical product (AND)
of multiple literals (ab, x’y, z’y’)
• A sum term is a literal or the logical sum (OR) of
multiple literals (a+b, a’+b, x’+y’)
• A sum of product (SOP) is the logical OR of multiple
product terms (ab+bc’+a’b’)
• A product of sum (POS) is the logical AND of multiple
sum terms[(a+b’)(a’+b’)(a’+b)]

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 Minterms
• A minterm is a special product of literals, in which each
input variable appears exactly once.
• A function with n variables has 2n minterms
• Each minterm is true for exactly one combination of
inputs
Minterm Is true when… Shorthand
x’y’z’ x=0, y=0, z=0 m0
x’y’z x=0, y=0, z=1 m1
x’yz’ x=0, y=1, z=0
m2
x’yz x=0, y=1, z=1 m3
xy’z’ x=1, y=0, z=0 m4
xy’z x=1, y=0, z=1 m5
xyz’ x=1, y=1, z=0 m6 100
 Maxterms
• A maxterm is a special sum of literals, in which each
input variable appears exactly once.
• A function with n variables has 2n maxterms
• Each maxterm is false for exactly one combination of
inputs
Maxterm Is false when… Shorthand
x+y+z x=0, y=0, z=0 M0
x + y + z’ x=0, y=0, z=1 M1
x + y’ + z x=0, y=1, z=0 M2
x + y’ + z’ x=0, y=1, z=1 M3
x’ + y + z x=1, y=0, z=0 M4
x’ + y + z’ x=1, y=0, z=1 M5
x’ + y’ + z x=1, y=1, z=0 M6
x’ + y’ + z’ x=1, y=1, z=1 M7
101
 Relation of Minterm to Maxterm

• Any minterm mi is the complement of the

corresponding maxterm Mi
Minterm Shorthand Maxterm Shorthand
x’y’z’ m0 x+y+z M0
x’y’z m1 x + y + z’ M1
x’yz’ m2 x + y’ + z M2
x’yz m3 x + y’ + z M3
xy’z’ m4 x’ + y + z M4
xy’z m5 x’ + y + z’ M5
xyz’ m6 x’ + y’ + z M6
xyz m7 x’ + y’ + z’ M7
102
Canonical Forms
• A Canonical form of a switching equation is one that
contains all of the available input variables.
• Canonical Sum of Products: It is a complete set of Minterms
that defines when an output is a logical 1
• Canonical Product of sums: It is a complete set of maxterms
that defines when an output is a logical 0
• Canonical expressions are not simplified and contains
redundancies.

f = x’y’ + x’y + xyz’ is a normal expression

x’y’z’ + x’y’z + x’yz’ + x’yz + xyz’ is the
canonical form

103
Conversion to Canonical Form
• SOP to canonical:
• Identify the missing variable in each AND term
• AND the missing term and its complement with
the original AND term
• Expand the term by distribution property
• POS to canonical:
• Identify the missing variable in each OR term
• OR the missing term and its complement with the
original OR term
• Expand the term by distribution property

104
105
106
107
108
123
124
127
Prime Implicants and Essential Prime
Implicants

Minimal Sum = x’z’ + yz

128
Minimal Sum = z’
129
Find the PI and EPI. Also find the minimal
SUM

130
131
Minimal sum obtained

132
BCD to Excess-3 Conversion
W=A+BC+BD=A+B(C+D)
X=B’C+B’D+BC’D’=B’(C+D)+BC’D’
Y=CD+C’D’
Z=D’
Logic Diagram
Show the grouping of Maxterms. Mention Prime Implicates
and Essential prime implicates. Also Find the Minimal
Product .

J = f (x,y,z) = ∏ (0,3,4,7)

145
Minimal Product

146
147
Minimal Product
148
Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
• simplify the following Boolean function,
f(W,X,Y,Z)=∑m(2,6,8,9,10,11,14,15) using Quine-
McClukey tabular method.

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 End of Unit1

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