Learning Disabilities

Issues in the Definition,

Identification, and Classification of
Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD)

• There is considerable controversy regarding how to

best define specific learning disabilities and the
implications of terms of usage in different parts of
the world.
• The differences in definitions can be found based on
the nature of the defining source (e.g., the DSM, U.S.
Federal Educational Register, National Joint
Committee for Learning Disabilities) and on the
country of origin.
• In many countries of the world, the term learning
disability continues to be equated with
intellectual disability.
• Furthermore, specific learning disability or
specific learning disorder has also become
equated with developmental dyslexia (Demonet,
Taylor, & Chaix, 2004), which is primarily used
to describe a reading disability.
• Traditionally, specific learning disabilities were
identified and defined using a discrepancy
criteria; namely, a student was considered to
have a learning disability if there was a
significant discrepancy between intellectual
functioning (on an IQ test) and academic
performance (in areas of reading, writing, or
mathematics, as measured by a standardized
academic test).
• Despite this movement, the DSM-5 (APA, 2013)
has altered its criteria by removing reference to
the discrepancy criteria and replacing it with
reference to academic skills that are
“substantially and quantifiably below those
expected for the individual’s chronological age…
as confirmed by individually administered
standardized achievement measures and clinical
assessment”
• The DSM acknowledges SLD in several areas, with
impairment in reading (accuracy, fluency,
comprehension), written expression (spelling, grammar
and punctuation, organization), and mathematics (number
sense, facts, calculation, or math reasoning).
• Although the DSM acknowledges that associated
processing deficits in areas of visual perception, linguistic
processes, attention, and memory may accompany a
learning disorder, if a sensory deficit is evident, then the
learning disorder must be in excess of what would be
expected, given that deficit.
 GENERAL PREVALENCE RATES
AND COURSE
• For example, in studies that have used a discrepancy criterion
(standard score differences between
achievement scores and IQ scores), prevalence figures for
comorbid ADHD +SLD have ranged from 16% to 21% (Frick
et al., 1991)—in a study where a
20-point discrepancy between intelligence (IQ) and
achievement was used—to a prevalence of 38% to 45%—in a
study where a 10-point discrepancy was used between the
standard reading scores and the IQ (Dykman & Ackerman,
1992; Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1992). Overall, prevalence rates
for SLD are considered to be between 2% and 10% of the
population (APA, 2000).
 Caution
• The difference between social skills and social
competence has been distinguished based on the
following accepted criteria.
• Social competence is a trait that determines the
probability of completing a social task in an
acceptable way; social skills are the requisite
behaviors that are exhibited in social situations
that produce socially acceptable outcomes
(McFall, 1982).
 LEARNING DISABILITIES
AND SUBTYPES
• There are several different types of learning
disabilities.
• This discussion focuses on five specific types
that have been studied, including disabilities
in reading, writing, and mathematics, and less
well-known disabilities involving nonverbal
learning and motor skills deficits (related to
coordination and handwriting).
 What is a learning disability?
Having trouble:
Processing information
Organizing information
Applying information
 Types of Learning Disabilities
 Dyslexia  Central Auditory Processing
A language and reading disability Disorder
Difficulty processing and
 Dyscalculia remembering language-related tasks
Problems with arithmetic and  Non-Verbal Learning Disorders
math concepts Trouble with nonverbal cues, e.g.,
 Dysgraphia body language; poor coordination,
clumsy
A writing disorder resulting in
 Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor
illegibility Deficit
 Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Reverses letters; cannot copy
Disorder) accurately;
Problems with motor coordination  Language Disorders
(Aphasia/Dysphasia)
Trouble understanding spoken
language; poor reading
comprehension
 Causes or Presumed causes of
Learning Disabilities
 NO real causes
 Might be caused by:
Hereditary
Teratogenic
Medical
Environmental
 Incident Rates
 Estimated 15 % of the U.S. population
 6 % to 8 % of school age population
 SPECIFIC READING
DISABILITY: DYSLEXIA
• Although learning disabilities are recognized as a
heterogeneous group of disorders, specific reading
disability is the most prevalent (80% of learning
disabilities) and well-researched SLD to date.
• Children who have dyslexia encounter difficulties
reading, which may be evident in problems
decoding (problems associating the sound to the
symbol) or comprehending what they have read.
• Because reading is often labored, their fluency is significantly
compromised and results in increased difficulties with
consolidating information they have read.
• Reading problems are not caused by general cognitive
limitations or other environmental factors, such as
inappropriate instruction, socioeconomic disadvantage, or
sensory deficits.
• The disability impacts on the acquisition of basic
reading skills from simple phonological processing (sound–
symbol association) to word identification and passage
comprehension.
• Individuals with dyslexia are compromised in several ways, since
reading often provides the foundation for learning about our world.
• As a result, a fluid reader can obtain more information about many
topics than an individual who struggles with the written word.
• Stanovich (1986) labeled this process the “Matthew effect” to refer
to the increasing gap in knowledge that can exist between good and
poor readers.
• According to Ferrer et al. (2010), this gap can influence the
development of IQ over time, because measurement of IQ often
includes an assessment of our acquisition of vocabulary and general
knowledge.
• Although many readers with dyslexia increase their
reading accuracy as a result of intervention, lack of
fluency produces long-term problems resulting in
effortful, slow, and laborious reading (Shaywitz,
2003).
• Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2008) emphasize the need to
recognize the impact of dyslexia on students taking
tests, and they argue for the need to provide extra
time for these students with dyslexia to perform to
• their potential.
 Prevalence
• Dyslexia is the most common form of SLD. It is estimated that
between 5% and 17% of the population meet criteria for the
disorder (Ferrer et al., 2010).
• Developmentally, signs of dyslexia may be subtle until the
child enrolls in school, however early problems with learning
the alphabet, recognizing letters and numbers, rhyming
activities, following instructions or directions, or difficulty
writing his or her own name may be early signals of
dyslexia.
• Although the male-to-female ratio for dyslexia is
approximately 8:1
• Some children may escape detection if they use
strong memory skills and “appear” to be reading.
• Others may develop behavior problems to escape the
inevitable task of having to read in front of a class.
• Children with dyslexia often also exhibit many of the
executive functioning problems noted in children
with ADHD, and it is not surprising that the
comorbidity between these two disorders has been
estimated to be as high as 38% to 45% in some
studies (Dykman &Ackerman, 1991).
 Etiology
• Biological,
• Neurological, and
• Genetic Transmission
• Reading involves visual recognition of an
array of letters as meaningful, recalling
(memory) the meaning of the word,
and integrating that word within a
greater context (comprehension).
 Approaches used to diagnose
dyslexia
 Today, only after a student has reading
difficulties can dyslexia be diagnosed
 Dyslexia may have “biological roots”
 Psychological testing can determine if a
child has dyslexia
 Interventions
• Experts in the field of SLD emphasize that it is important to
dispel the myth that “reading problems are outgrown or somehow
represent a developmental lag” (Shaywitz, Morris, & Shaywitz,
2008, p. 470), and that those with dyslexia will not improve over
time, unless specific and intense interventions are applied.
• In their work with second- and third-grade children with dyslexia,
Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2008) found that 50 minutes of daily
tutoring specifically for sound–symbol associations (phonemic
instruction) not only enhanced reading ability but also improved
neural connections by increasing brain activation patterns in these
children that mimic patterns of normal readers.
 Dysgraphia
• Some may struggle with handwriting (not caused by motor
coordination problems) but exhibit problems attempting to copy
notes from the board or another source.
• Others may experience problems with spelling due to an inability
to correctly recall letter sequences and produce errors due to letter
reversals (b/d), letter transpositions (frist gril, instead of first girl),
or letter inversions (u/n).
• Others may suffer from more global deficits and experience
problems with organization of their ideas and then transcribing
these into written form.
• Still others may encounter problems with grammatical structure
and punctuation.
• Dysgraphia involves three different aspects of the writing
process:
• (1) the actual transcription process (copying from one
source to another; putting ideas on paper);
• (2) the mechanical or technical aspects of the process
(grammar, punctuation, spelling accuracy); and
• (3) the organization of information to be transcribed
(clarity of presentation, sequencing of ideas, flow).
Individuals with a specific disability in the area of written
expression can experience problems in any or all of these
areas.
• In all cases, written expression would be
substantially below the level anticipated given
their grade level and level of intellectual
functioning, and similar to all other specific
learning disabilities in that the deficit is not the
result of environmental conditions (e.g., lack of
teaching/schooling).
 Prevalence
• Prevalence rates for dysgraphia in the early (primary)
grades have been estimated to be between 1.3% to 2.7%,
however, these rates climb to as high as 6% to 22% by
middle school (Berninger & Hart, 1992; Hooper et al.,
2002).
• These difficulties will persist beyond an age when they
should self-correct (approximately 8 years of age).
• Have problems completing work on time, despite the
effort, or have difficulty copying words and cutting and
coloring within the lines.
 DYSCALCULIA
• Have deficits in their ability to process
information related to numbers and
mathematical procedures.
• It is estimated that 5% to 10% of children
enrolled in school would meet criteria for
MLD.
• At a young age, children demonstrate problems with
counting, one-to-one correspondence, learning basic
number facts, and understanding quantitative concepts
such as more or less.
• As children get older, their problems are compounded by
greater emphasis on problem solving using word
problems and being presented with more complex
mathematical procedures.
• In his investigations of MLD, Geary (2000, 2003)
suggests that deficits in executive functions, such as
attention and short-term memory, and weaknesses
in visuospatial functioning are at the core of MLD.
• Children who are weak in these areas have
difficulties with alignment, place value, and
orienting to information in charts and maps.
• He cites examples of children who use their fingers
to count as an example of poor working memory.
 NONVERBAL LEARNING
DISABILITIES
• Significant strengths in the verbal areas and significant
weaknesses in the performance (visuospatial) areas.
• In the literature, the disability has also been referred to as
developmental right-hemisphere syndrome.
• NLD is a low-incidence disorder, with a prevalence rate of
approximately .1%;
• They excel at reading but are poor at math (dyscalculia), and they have a
weakness for facial recognition and other visuospatial tasks. In the social
arena, they share many similarities to individuals with Asperger’s
disorder (poor sense of social cues, pragmatic speech). As youth, they
may feel isolated because of their weak social skills and may be prone to
depression (Rourke, 1995).
• Rourke and colleagues (2002) proposed the white
matter model as an explanation for NLD.
• This model suggests that, as a result of insult to
the right hemisphere of the brain (acquired or
congenitally), the amount of white matter
(myelinated fibers) is reduced, resulting in a
disconnect between the left and right
hemispheres of the brain, which do not
communicate with each other.
 DYSPRAXIA
• Demonstrate immaturities in fine and gross motor
skills, which may influence writing but also influence
other activities that involve smooth muscle movements.
• The DSM-5 considers DCD as a neurodevelopmental
disorder, more specifically, a motor disorder characterized
by poorly coordinated motor skills (clumsy, dropping or
bumping into things, slow or inaccurate attempts to catch,
cut, or copy).
• The disorder interferes with daily living and compromises
success academically and socially.
 Prevalence and Course
• The prevalence of DCD is estimated to be
between 5% to 6% of children ages 5 to 11, with
the disorder occurring more frequently in males
than females (2:1 vs. 7:1) (APA, 2013).
• The rates of comorbidity for CDC, dyslexia, and
ADHD are high (Sugden, Kirby, & Dunford,
2008), with comorbidity for ADHD and DCD
estimated to be as high as 50% by some
researchers (Kadesjo & Gillberg, 1998).
• Because children with DCD exhibit difficulties
in the planning and executing of motor
movements, early warning signs include
difficulty with buttoning clothes or tying shoes,
limited athletic ability (catching or throwing a
ball), and difficulty completing tasks requiring
precision, such as cutting or coloring.
• Motor milestones are often delayed (e.g., late
crawling, walking).
 Characteristics of Learning
Disabilities
How will I know if my student has a LD?
 Most students exhibit uneven areas of ability
 Student is physically “normal”
 Average or above average intelligence
 Commonly found in classes: dyslexia and ADD/ADHD
 Many LDs need to be medically diagnosed
 Does my student have dyslexia?

 Reading characteristics

 Writing characteristics

 Numbers/Sequencing
 Identifying LDs
• •If a student is not making adequate progress in
the following areas, educational evaluation
should be considered
• Oral Expression Written Expression
• Listening Comprehension Reading
Comprehension
• Reading Mechanics Reading Fluency
• Mathematical Calculation Mathematical
Reasoning
 Celebrities with dyslexia
• Tom Cruise • Henry “The Fonz”
Winkler

• Walt Disney • Magic Johnson

 Celebrities with ADD/ADHD

• Ty Pennington • Robin Williams

• Ellen Degeneres • Tracy Gold

 INSTRUCTIONAL IDEAS:
ASSISTANCE WITH AUDIO AND VISUAL
ASPECTS OF LEARNING

Teachers may find the following helpful:

 Repeat and summarize oral lecture notes and give students
written versions of key points.
 Verbalize what is being written on the chalkboard and read aloud
material contained in handouts.
 Send students a copy of booklist for upcoming semester/school
year so that students can “get a jump on” the reading
assignments.
 ASSISTANCE DURING
ASSESSMENTS:
The teacher may wish to:
 Choose an alternate exam site away from the general education
classroom. Ensure that this alternate locale is free from auditory
and visual distracters.
 Avoid confusing or complicated language and/or consider a
substitute exam/assessment.
 Allow student extra time to complete exams/assignments,
especially if there are unique demands regarding reading and
writing skills.
 ADDITIONAL
INSTRUCTIONAL IDEAS
Teachers should:
Supporting learning with visuals
Stressing step-by-step instructions

For students with ADHD, teachers should:

Give only one assignment at a time.
 TECHNOLOGY USED
COMPUTERS:
 For writing assignments, students with LD should be allowed to
use a computer (if available) so that they can get spelling support
through the spell check program.
 Students with dyslexia may find that writing assignments are
more easily completed on a computer.
 Consider trying computer software, like Kurzweil 3000, which
reads textbooks and other materials to students.
 OTHER ASSISTIVE
TECHNOLOGY
Teachers may:
 Allow students to use calculators during Math, when the goal is
concept attainment (and not automaticity of math facts)
 Allow students to tape record lectures and/or tape notes for
students.
 Allow students who cannot speak clearly to use a speech
synthesizer
Assessment:
 Allow for alternate forms of assessment by allowing students to
demonstrate learning through such things as portfolios, slide
presentations, photographic essays, or taped interviews.
 INTERESTING TIDBITS
POTPOURRI
 Because many people with dyslexia are right-brained thinkers,
they may be more artistic and creative, becoming poets, actors,
inventors, and artists.
 Children with dyslexia use “almost five times as much brain area
as other children while doing a simple language task”
(Silverstein et al., 2001, p. 22).
 “In the past, doctors…tried to prevent [children with disabilities]
from being born; they…also…tried to stop some [people with
disabilities] from having children of their own” (Flynn, 1998, p.
11).
 INTERESTING TIDBITS
EMOTIONAL ISSUES
 Students with learning disabilities may suffer from
emotional problems/depression, and/or low
self-esteem. This may cause students to withdraw
from social interaction.
 These same students may turn to drugs or alcohol for relief
from feelings of low self-worth.
 As many as 35% of students with learning disorders,
drop out of High School (Girod, 2001, p. 31).
 “Teenagers with dyslexia …[are] more likely to…think about
and to attempt suicide than other young people their age” (Landau, 2004, pp. 48-
9).