UNIT I

Fertilisers and Pesticides

Aims of the session:

• Learn about fertilisers and their effects on the environment.

• Learn about Pesticides and their effects

• Summarise the key points about pesticides

[Link]
Synthetic fertilizer
Fertilizer
It is easy to be confused when you pick a
fertilizer.
Lets get down to basics.
Plant Nutrients

• Provided by air and water

– Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen
• Major nutrients
– Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), &
Potassium (K)
• Secondary
– Calcium, Magnesium, & Sulfur
 Nitrogen
• Needed for vegetative growth
• Associated with dark green color
• Is a part of the chlorophyll molecule, and so has
an effect in photosynthesis
• Increases stem and leaf production
• Reduces winter hardiness
• Too much can inhibit fruit set
 Phosphorus
• Phosphorus is involved in the metabolic processes
responsible for transferring energy from one point to
another in the plant.
• It's help in root development and flowering. Because
phosphorus moves slowly through the soil, it's important to
work it into the soil, where it's needed by the roots.
• Phosphorous encourages flower blossom growth. The best
fertilizer for flowers should be formulated with equal
amounts of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium (such as 10-
10-10), or ratios with a lower level of nitrogen
 Potassium
• Potassium helps regulate plant metabolism and
affects water pressure regulation inside and
outside of plant cells.

• It is important for good root development. For

these reasons, potassium is critical to plant stress
tolerance.
 The Fill in Fertilizer
• The purpose is to allow even spreading and to
avoid high concentrates of fertilizer that may
cause plant burn
• Fertilizer can be purchased in granular solids,
water soluble powders, liquids, slow release
pellets, slow release spikes and tablets.
 Types of Fertilizer
 Complete – contains Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium
Complete: 10-10-10 regular garden fertilizer.

 In-Complete – contains one or more (but not all three) of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium.
Urea – for example contains 45 percent Nitrogen with no phosphorus or potassium:
45-0-0

 Time-Release Ingredients- Slow Release – materials are treated so that nutrients

diffuse slowly. The macro-nutrients are gradually released into the soil provided the
soil is warm and the moisture level high enough to allow erosion of the coating.

 Fertilizer / Pesticide combination - convenient, but expensive, not always

necessary. Combination – Weed & Feed
 Fertilizer Materials / Sources
• Inorganic: from nonliving, mineral sources such as
phosphate rock and greensand

• Organic: from living / formerly living, carbon containing

sources such as animal manures, green manures and cover
crops

• Synthetic: Manufactured chemical structures , dependent

upon carbon based fuels and inorganic acids
 Commercial vs. Organic
Commercial Organic
•Usually less expensive Less bulky •Can be expensive per Can be
to handle bulky
•Available quickly •Slowly available
•Greater potential for plant •Less potential for burning
growth
•Still potential to pollute
•high in all three macronutrients,
commonly include products like •Organic fertilizers contain only
ammonium nitrate, ammonium plant- or animal-based materials
sulfate, potassium chloride that are either a byproduct or
(potash), triple superphosphate, end product of naturally
and magnesium sulfate (Epsom occurring processes, such as
salts).
manures, leaves, and compost
 Organic Fertilizers
Livestock Manure
•Nutrient Content – book values are estimates, actual nutrient
values depend upon moisture content, animal diet, bedding type
and amount.
•Storage and handling – Nitrogen losses can range from 20 to
50%, bedding can help reduce some of the loss.
•Other, intangible benefits - provides other macro & micro
nutrients, source of organic matter, slow release form of nitrogen.
•Deterrents – pathogens? Antibiotics? De-wormers?
•Composted manure – better option
 Fertilizer Application Methods
• It is best to apply smaller amounts of fertilizer several times
throughout the growing season. Applying large amounts of
fertilizer can leach from the soil, and push too much succulent
growth that is prone to fungal diseases. Apply no more than 1
lb. of nitrogen fertilizer (slow or controlled-release) per 1000
square feet, per application.
• Proper application and cleanup.
• When spreading fertilizer, make sure your spreader is not
broadcasting fertilizer granules onto walks and driveways
where it will wash into storm drains.
• Sweep up fertilizer on paved areas and spread it on lawn areas.
 Fertilizer Tips
• Remember fresh manure can burn plants due to
high soluble salts and nitrogen
• Starter solutions are great for developing roots
of transplants
• Side dress vegetables after flowering begins
• Read labels carefully
 Fertilizer Tips
• Nutrient deficiency and excess appear
the same – never guess
• Most plants deficient in some nutrient
(s) will show yellowing in leaves
• Excess of N cause succulent growth but
no fruit.
• Ca deficiency will cause blossom end
rot.
• Poor fruit, poor root growth, thin stems
could be due to low phosphorus.
 Fertilizer Tips

• Start fertilizing lawns when soil

temperature reaches @ 40 degrees F.
• Utilize a four step program for lawns
• Fertilize outside plants in containers
more often
• Apply Bulb-tone or Bone Meal to spring
bulbs as you plant them.
 Fertilizer Tips
• Do not over fertilize
• Side dressing fertilizing benefits
• Acid fertilizers
• Egg Shells
• Fertilize newly planted seeds
• Applying lime every year.
Fertilisers
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil
to supply one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
Sources and Forms of Fertilizer
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Fertilizers can also be classified based on physical form

Solid fertilizers Liquid fertilizers

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Solid fertilizers are in several forms:

Urea prills Ammonium sulphate Granulated urea

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Liquid fertilizers
Liquid form fertilizers are applied with irrigation water or for
application. Ease of handling, less labor requirement and possibility
of mixing with herbicides has made the liquid fertilizers more
acceptable to farmers.
TYPES OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

A. Nitrogenous fertilizers
More than 80 per cent of the fertilizers used in this country are made up
of nitrogenous fertilizers, particularly urea.

Ammoniacal Nitrate Ammoniacal and Amide

Nitrate fertilizer

Ammonium Sodium Nitrate Ammonium Nitrate Urea

Sulphate Calcium Nitrate Calcium Ammonium Calcium

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

The nitrogenous fertilizers can be further classified into:

1. Ammonical fertilizers
 Ammoniacal fertilizers contain the nutrient
nitrogen in the form of ammonium or
ammonia.
 Except rice, all crops absorb nitrogen in nitrate
form.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 S04]

• It is a white salt completely soluble in water

• It is used advantageously in rice and jute

cultivation.
Weak base

• It is easy to handle and it stores well under dry

conditions. But during rainy season, it sometimes
forms lumps.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl)
• It is a white salt contains 26.0
per cent of nitrogen.
• It is usually not recommended Ammonium chloride

for tomato, tobacco and such

other crops as may be injured
by chlorine.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

2. Nitrate Fertilizers
• Nitrate fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of NO3
• These ions are easily lost by leaching because of the greater mobility of
nitrate ions in the soil.
• Continuous use of these fertilizers may reduce the soil acidity as these
nitrogenous fertilizers are basic in their residual effect on soils.

a) Calcium nitrate [Ca (NO3)2]

It is a white crystalline hygroscopic solid soluble in water
The calcium is useful for maintaining a desirable soil pH.

Calcium nitrate
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Potassium nitrate (KN03)

The nitrogen of the potassium nitrate has the same properties
and value as that of the sodium nitrate.

3. Ammoniacal and nitrate fertilizers

These fertilizers contain nitrogen in both ammonium and
nitrate forms.
The nitrates are useful for rapid utilization by crops and the
ammonical is gradually available
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)

• Contain 35 per cent nitrogen half as nitrate nitrogen and half
in the ammonium form.

• In the ammonium form, it cannot be easily leached from

the soil.

• This fertilizer is quick-acting, but highly hygroscopic and not

fit for storage.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN)

 Calcium ammonium nitrate is a fine
free-flowing, light brown or grey
granular fertilizer, containing 26 per
cent of nitrogen.

 It is almost neutral and can be

.
safely applied even to acid soils.

 50% of its total nitrogen is in the

ammoniacal form and another 50% is
in nitrate form.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c) Ammonium sulphate nitrate [(NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3]

 It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
 It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and has to be kept in
moisture proof containers.
 It is readily converted to ammoniacal and nitrate forms in the
soil.
.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

4. Amide fertilizers
Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in water and easily decomposable in the
soil.

a) Urea [CO (NH2)2]

It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per cent
nitrogen.
It is a white crystalline substance readily soluble in water.
 The nitrogen in urea is readily fixed in the soil in an ammoniacal form and is
not lost in drainage.
 Urea sprays are readily absorbed by plants. .
 It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

B. Phosphatic fertilizers

Phosphatic fertilizers are chemical substances

that contain the nutrient phosphorus in absorbable form
(Phosphate anions) or that yield after conversion in the
soil.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Super phosphate Triple super phosphate:

[Ca (H2PO4)2)
The concentrated super phosphate
This is the most important phosphatic
is called as Triple super phosphate
fertilizer in use.
and it contains 46 per cent P2O5.
It contains 16 Per cent P2O5 in
available form.
This fertilizer is suitable for all crops
It is a grey ash like powder with good and all soils.
keeping or storage qualities.
Phosphatic fertilizer hardly moves in the In acid soils, it should be used in

soil and hence they are placed in the, conjunction with organic manure.

root zone.
It can be applied before or at sowing
or transplanting.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

C. Potassic fertilizers
There are a limited number of fertilizer materials that can be used to
supply K when needed.

Common fertilizer sources of K

Material Chemical Formula K2O Contend(%)

Potassium chloride KCl 60

Potassium-magnesium sulfate K2SO4-2MgSO4 20

Potassium nitrate KNO3 44

Potassium sulfate K2SO4 50

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Potassium chloride (KCI)

• Potassium chloride is a white crystal.

• It is completely soluble in water and therefore readily

available to the crops.

• It can be applied at sowing or before or after sowing.

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Potassium sulphate (K2S04)

•Potassium sulphate or sulphate of potash is a white
salt.

•It is soluble in water and therefore readily available to

the crop.

•It does not produce any acidity or alkalinity in the

soil.

•It is preferred for fertilization of crops like tobacco,

potato etc.,
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c. Sulphate Fertilizers
These are chemical substances containing the nutrient
sulphur in the form of absorbable sulphate anions
(SO42-).
The sulphur requirements of plants are about two third of
their phosphorus requirements.
Substantial sulphur supplies occur as minor constituents
of various N, P and K fertilizers.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

D. Micronutrient Fertilizers
The importance of fertilization of crops with micro-
nutrients is increasing mainly because of greater
removal from the soil, intensive liming of soil, intensive
drainage of soil, higher use of nitrogenous, phosphatic
and potassic fertilizers etc. There are seven essential
micronutrients required by plants.
These are iron, manganese, zinc, copper, chlorine,
boron and molybdenum.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a. lron fertilizers
These are generally water soluble substances, predominantly sprayed as
foliar nutrients on the crops. Plants absorb iron in the form of Fe2+.

Ferrous sulphate It is a water soluble fertilizer containing 20 % Fe

(FeSO4 7H2O)

Fe – Chelates Suitable for application as foliar nutrients

Fe-EDTA
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b. Manganese fertilizers

The manganese (Mn) fertilizers are as follows:

ManganousSulphate It is the well known water soluble Mn fertilizer.

( MnSO4 .7H2O) It is pink salt containing 24 % Mn.
It dissolves in water and is suitable for foliar
application.

Mn – chelates It contains 13 % Mn.

It plays an important role in the crop
fertilization.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c. Zinc fertilizers
Zinc (Zn) fertilizers play an important role in Zn
deficient

Zincsulphate It is water soluble whitish salt containing 23 % Zn.

(ZnSO4 7H2O) It is applied as foliar nutrient.
Its acidic action causes corrosion damage to
plants
Zinc-oxide(ZnO) It contains 70 % Zn.
It is slightly soluble in water
It is used as slow acting foliar nutrient
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

d. Copper Fertilizers

Copper fertilizers have been used to correct copper

(Cu),deficiencies.
Copper sulphate (CuSO4 5H2O) – 25 % Cu
Copper sulphate (CuSO4 H2O) – 36 % Cu
e. Boron Fertilizers
Borax (Na2B4O 10H2O) It contains 11 % B
It is water soluble white salt
It can be applied as a soil dressing or foliar application

Boric acid (H3BO3) It contains 18 % B

It is a white crystalline powder
It is applied as a foliar nutrient
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

f. Molybdenum Fertilizers

Sodium It contains 40 % Mo
molybdate
(Na2MoO42.H2O)

Ammonium It contains 54 % Mo
molybdate
(NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O)
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

E. Secondary major-nutrient fertilizers

a). Magnesium fertilizers
These are chemical substances containing the nutrient magnesium in
the form of magnesium cations (Mg2+).
Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4)
The utilization rate of magnesium fertilizers decreases with increasing
potassium supplies.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b). Calcium fertilizers

These are the chemical substances containing the
nutrient calcium in absorbable calcium cations ('Ca2+)
form.
The raw material of calcium fertilizers is lime found in
nature.
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2 6H2O)
It contains at least 15 per cent calcium.
It is highly water soluble and can, therefore, be dissolved
for application as a foliar nutrient.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

To Sum up

Fertilizers are available in both organic as well as

inorganic forms.

They are classified as straight, complex and mixed

fertilizers.

They can also be classified into solid and liquid

fertilizers.

Fertilizers are applied to supply nutrients required by

the crop that are taken up from the soil.
Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
 Conditions for nutrient deficiency
a) Amount and concentration of nutrients in the soil.
b) Form of the soil.
c) The contents of the soil solutions.
d) Soil pH.

Nutrient concentration in plants: these vary with

a) Plant age
b) Plant part
c) Plant species
d) Soil type
 Deficiency symptoms
• Symptom: is any traceable change in known structure, appearance
or function.

These include:
1. Yellowing (Chlorosis: Chlorosis is a condition in which leaves
produce insufficient chlorophyll. )
2. Death (Necrosis)
3. Lesions(any abnormality in the tissue of an organism )
4. Malformation(Irregular or abnormal structural development)
5. Reduced growth and yield
 Essential Elements
• The 16 elements required by plants are obtained from
the soil, water and air.

• Thirteen of these elements must be supplied by the soil.

• Six of the soil elements required by plants are needed in

relatively large amounts and are usually added to the soil
through fertilizer or lime. These are called
macronutrients.
• The remaining 7 elements supplied by soil are required
in very small amounts and are termed micronutrients.
 Macronutrients – Form Used By Plants-
Macronutrients are needed in relatively large
amounts by plants.
Nutrient Symbol Form Used Source
Charge on the
Carbon O CO2 Air/Water
molecule
Oxygen H H2O Air/Water
Hydrogen C H2O Air/Water
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ Soil
Phosphorus P H2PO4 & Soil
HPO42-
Potassium S K+ Soil
Calcium K Ca2+ Soil
Magnesium Ca Mg2+ Soil
Micronutrients – Macronutrients are needed in
relatively small amounts by plants.
They are usually supplied by fertilizers.
Nutrient Symbol Source Form Used
Charge on the
Iron Fe Soil Fe2+
molecule

Manganese Mn Soil Mn2+

Boron B Soil H2B03-
Molybdenu Mo Soil MoO42-
m
Copper Cu Soil Cu2+
Zinc Zn Soil Zn2+
Chlorine Cl Soil Cl-
 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
• Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on
the plant when one or more nutrients are in
short supply.

• In many cases, deficiency may occur because an

added nutrient is not in the form the plant can
use.
 Deficiency Symptoms - N
• General Chlorosis.

• Chlorosis progresses from

light green to yellow.

• Growth is immediately
restricted and plants soon
become weak and drop
older leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - P
• Leaves appear dull, dark
green, blue green, or red-
purple, especially on the
underside, and especially at
the midrib and deposit.
• Petioles may also exhibit
purpling. Re­striction in
growth may be noticed.
 Deficiency Symptoms - K
• Leaf margins brown, dry as a
bone, or have necrotic spots
(may be small black spots).
• Margins become brown and
cup downward.
• Growth is restricted and die
back may occur.
• Mild symptoms appear first
on recently matured leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Ca
• Growing points usually
damaged or dead (die
back).
• Margins of leaves
developing from the
growing point are first to
turn brown.

[Link]
[Link]
 Deficiency Symptoms - Mg
• Marginal chlorosis or chlorotic
spots which later merge.
• Younger leaves affected with
continued stress.
• Chlorotic areas may become
necrotic, brittle, and curl
upward.
• Symptoms usually occur late in
the growing season.

[Link]
deficiencies/-[Link]
 Deficiency Symptoms - S
• Leaves uniformly light green, followed by yellowing
and poor growth.
• Uniform chlorosis does not occur
 Deficiency Symptoms - Cu
• Leaves faded, become
chlorotic, then necrotic.
• drooping and necrosis are
not dominant symptoms.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Fe
• Distinct yellow or white
areas appear between
veins, and veins
eventually become
chlorotic.
• Symptoms are rare on
mature leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Mn
• Chlorosis is less marked
near veins.
• Chlorotic areas eventually
become brown,
transparent, or necrotic.
• Symptoms may appear
later on older leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Zn
• Leaves may be abnormally small and necrotic.
• Internodes are shortened.

[Link]
FieldCrops/Mirror/Nutrient%20Def_files/
[Link]
[Link]
Nutrient_Deficiency_Pages/corn_def/CORN-
[Link]
 Deficiency Symptoms - B
• Young, expanding leaves
may be necrotic or
distorted followed by
death of growing points.
• Internodes may be short,
especially at shoot
terminals.
• Stems may be rough,
cracked, or split along the
vascular bundles. [Link]
Crops Highly Susceptible to Deficiencies
Element Crops
Mn Soybean, Small Grain & Peanuts
Cu Wheat & Corn
Zn Corn
Mo Soybeans & Cauliflower
B Apples, Peanuts, Tobacco & Tomatoes
Fe Fruit Trees, Soybeans & Some Grasses
Pesticides
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of
agricultural pests that can damage crops and livestock and reduce farm
productivity.

Major types of pesticides:

Insecticides – used to kill insects
Herbicides – weed killers
Fungicides – used to kill molds, rusts
Rodenticides – rat & mouse killers
PESTICIDE BENEFITS Over 70% of pesticides
are used in the developed
countries –
1) Saves Lives – Malaria - mosquitoes (DDT) AGRIBUSINESS
Plague – rat fleas
Typhus – body parasites
Sleeping Sickness – Tsetse Fly

2) Increased Food Supply

Pests destroy ~40% of food
crops per year!! Costs 65 million
3) Lower Food Costs dollars a year!

4) Work Faster than alternatives –

such as biological controls;
physical controls
IDEAL PESTICIDES would…
o Kills only the target pest!!
o Harms no other species in ecosystem
o Disappears or breaks down into something non toxic
o Does not promote genetic resistance in pests
o Is more cost-effective (cheap)
PESTICIDE PROBLEMS:
Endocrine disruptors (DDT, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
Atrazine, Bisphenol A) are carcinogens
Wildlife –mutations
Humans – increase cancers , increase in miscarriage, increase in
male infertility

They can be constant and biomagnified in the ecosystem (DDT;

PCBs)

Neurological Damage – PCBs, mercury

Surface Water Runoff of pesticides – killing millions of fish
Direct contact of farmers resulting in deaths – Organophosphates
(Malathion)
Broad Spectrum Pesticides – killing useful insects - honeybee
 HAZARD = Toxicity x Exposure

Risk; the the capacity of

potential for a pesticide to
injury cause injury the risk of a
pesticide
contacting or
entering the
body
Pesticides and Humans
• Insects, rodents, and humans have similar
nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems, so
pesticides can affect people too!

• Health effects - short- or long-term

• Physical and chemical risks - explosive or
combustible
Poisoning Effects
• Contact

• Systemic

• Allergic
 Contact Effects
Contact injury to the skin
is the most common form of
pesticide poisoning!

• Skin irritation (dermatitis): itching, redness, rashes,

burns
• Eyes: swelling, burning
• Nose, mouth, throat irritation
• Typical of herbicides, fungicides and other products
Systemic Effects

• From pesticides that target animals

– Insecticides: Nervous system
– Rodenticides: Circulatory system
• Insecticide symptoms: Nausea, Vomiting,
Diarrhea, Headache, Weakness, Excessive
sweating, Tearing, Chest pain, Breathing
difficulty.
 Allergic Effects
• Contact or Systemic
• Life-threatening shock
• Red or itchy eyes
• Respiratory discomfort, asthma
Routes of Entry: Skin (Dermal)
97% of all body
exposure during
spraying is by
skin contact!
Some Common Pesticides
 Insecticide: Organochlorines (DDT), Organophosphates (Parathion) and carbamates
( Carbaryl).
 DDT:- is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride.

 Highly hydrophobic, it is nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in

most organic solvents, fats and oils.
 From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculture.
 In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, damage neurons which leads to spasms
and eventual death.
• Problems:
 In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries.
 is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments
 Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are absorbed
by aquatic organisms.
 Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT has a high potential to bioaccumulate, especially
in predatory birds
 Herbicide: 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

 is a common systemic herbicide used in the control

of broadleaf weeds but not grasses or crops.
 It is absorbed through the leaves .

Problems:
 Men who work with 2,4-D are at risk of fertility problems; the risk depends
on the amount and duration of exposure and other personal factors.
 World Health Organization's (WHO) International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) confirmed that, 2,4-D as a possible carcinogen.
Fungicide: Hexachlorobenzene

 Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an organochloride with the

molecular formula It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment,
especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt.
 HCB is a white crystalline solid that has negligible solubility in water
 Material has relatively low sensitive toxicity but is toxic because of its
constant and increasing nature in body tissues in rich lipid content
Problems:
 Hexachlorobenzene is an animal carcinogen and is considered to be a
probable human carcinogen.
 hexachlorobenzene show increased incidences of liver, kidney (renal
tubular tumours) and thyroid cancers.
 Bioaccumulation

E.g DDT
zooplankton small fish large fish birds
water 0.04 ppm 0.5 ppm 2 ppm 25 ppm
The process of
Eutrophication
The process of Eutrophication cont.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).

This measures the rate of oxygen consumption by a

sample of water, and therefore gives a good
indication of eutrophication. A high BOD means lots
of organic material and aerobic microbes, i.e.
eutrophication
Soil Chemistry
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s crust in which organic matter grows. There are
many components which determine a soil type such as pH, nutrient level and
organic content. These factors can vary depending on the type of plant or crop
which grows in the soil and also on geographic location.

pH of the soil
Can be modified by adding different chemicals.
Soil pH indicates how acid or alkaline the soil is.
The pH of a soil is crucial because crops grow best in a narrow pH range which can vary
among crops.
For example, blueberries and a few types of flowers grow best when the pH is 5.5 or less.
Potatoes, a more familiar crop, grow best with a soil pH range of 5.5 to 6.0. Most garden
vegetables, shrubs, trees and lawns grow best when the soil pH is over 6.0 or 6.5.

The range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two reasons. It allows sufficient
microorganisms to break down organic matter. It is also the best range for nutrient
availability.
Liming
farmers needed a way to increase the pH of the soil to make it suitable for other
crops.
The pH of soil can be increased by liming.
This is why people sometimes spread white powder on their lawns or gardens.
This white powder is Lime.
Calcitic limestone (CaCO3) provides a good source of Calcium (Ca) and helps
neutralize soil acidity.
Limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium (Mg).
Chemistry to liming
Hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to soil and organic material which have
a negative charge. When lime is applied, these hydrogen ions are
exchanged for calcium or magnesium(Ca2+ or Mg2+) ions which have a
greater positive charge. This helps to neutralize the acidity of the soil.
The free hydrogen ions are taken out of solution. This also helps to
increase the pH.

Buffering capacity
is the ability of the soil to resist change. In the case of acidity, it is the ability of
the soil to resist change in pH.
Chemicals in Food
Food additives
Learning objectives
• To identify the reason(s) why food additives are used.
• To understand the different sources of food additives.
• To understand the different roles and functions of food
additives in food.
Food additives
Food additives are substances added to products to perform
specific technological functions.
functions include:
•Adding colour, flavour and sweetness to food for interest and
variety.
•Preserving, i.e. increasing shelf-life or inhibiting the growth of
pathogens.
 Use of food additives (PAT)

Preserving
Attractive
Tastier
 Main classes of food additives (Big 7)
1. Colourings
2. Flavourings
3. Sweeteners (To sweeten food without using sugar)
4. Preservatives
5. Emulsifiers and stabilizers(Stabilize oil-water
mixtures like ice-cream)
6. Acids, bases and buffers(Control the pH value of
food)
7. Nutrients
Types of additives
Additives may be:
• Natural – found naturally, such as
extracts from beetroot juice (E162), used as
a colouring agent;
• Manmade versions – synthetic identical
copies of substances found naturally, such
as benzoic acid (E210), used as a
preservative;
• Artificial – produced synthetically and
not found naturally, such as nisin (E234),
used as a preservative in some dairy
products.
Colours
Colours aim to:
• Restore colour lost during processing or storage, e.g.
marrowfat peas;

• Ensure that each batch produced is identical in appearance

or does not appear ‘off’
• Reinforces colour already in foods, e.g. enhance the
yellowness of a custard
• Give colour to foods which otherwise would be colourless
(e.g. soft drinks) and so make them more attractive.
Colours
Certain combinations of the following artificial food colours:
sunset yellow (E110), quinoline yellow (E104), carmoisine
(E122), allura red (E129), tartrazine (E102) and ponceau 4R
(E124) have been linked to a negative effect on children’s
behaviour.

These colours are used in soft drinks, sweets and ice cream.
Flavour enhancers
Flavour enhancers bring out the flavour in foods without
imparting a flavour of their own, e.g. Monosodium glutamate
(E612) is added to processed foods. For example some soups,
sauces and salad dressing.
(Prolonged eating cause numbness in a portion of brain)
Sweeteners
Sweeteners include:
• Intense sweeteners, e.g. saccharin, have a sweetness many
times that of sugar and therefore are used in small amounts, e.g.
in diet foods, soft drinks, sweetening tablets; (non caloric, control
obesity but causes bladder tumours)

• Bulk sweeteners, e.g. sorbitol, have a similar sweetness to sugar

and are used at similar levels.

If concentrated warm drinks that contain sweeteners are given to

children between the ages of 6 months to 4 years, it is important
to dilute them more than for adults. Infants under 6 months
should not be given cordial drinks.
Food Preservatives
Preservatives
• Chemicals added to maintain color and
freshness of food and drink products.
Preservatives
Preservatives aim to:
• Prevent the growth of micro-organisms which could cause food
spoilage and lead to food poisoning;

• Extend the shelf-life of products, so that they can be distributed

and sold to the consumer with a longer shelf-life.

For example:- Different types of meats are often treated with

nitrite and nitrate (E249 to E252) during the curing process.
General Name of Product and Chemicals Used in Daily Life
products and their Effect

A) Colas

• High Fructose Corn Syrup

• Carmel Color
• Phosphoric Acid
Caramel Color
• Brown color made from
burnt sugar
• Preservative effect
• Exempt from regulation
 Phosphoric Acid
• Acidifying agent
• Rots(Decay or Damage) teeth
• Cause calcium loss
• Rust remover
• High blood pressure
 Diet Coke
More of previous ingredients + …
• Aspartame
• Potassium Benzoate
• Citric Acid
Aspartame: Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide
sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods
and beverages
• Outlawed in some countries
• Hard of hearing
• Blindness
• High blood pressure
• Liver Cancer
Potassium Benzoate
• Allergies
• Asthma
• Skin reactions
• Hyperactivity
• Gastric irritation
• Migraines

Citric Acid
• Acidifying agent
• Made from fruit juice
• NO known side effects!!
 Beer
• Ingredients
– Barley, Hops, Yeast, Water
• Brewing process
– The processing, required for the formation of Beer
is known as Brewing process.
Types of Grain Used for Beer
• Barley
• Other Grains
– Wheat, Oats, Corn, Rice.
Malting-Process of Malt Formation
• Grain (usually barley) is malted
a) Harvested grain is soaked in water
until it germinates This activates
amylases (and proteases)
b) Grain is dried
c) Acrospires (sprouts) are removed
d) Grain is cured -usually at least one
month
Barley Amylase
e) Malt is formed
Yeast
• The word “enzyme” (meaning biological catalyst) originates
from the Greek for “within the yeast”*
• Through anaerobic respiration, it converts the malt sugar into
alcohol, CO2, and other by-products
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ
• Yeast is essentially a fermentation catalyst and often removed
after fermentation, and can be re-uesd
Water
1. Flavor of water
2. Nutrients for yeast
a) Can’t use distilled water
b) pH effects how well enzymes make maltose
c) Keep mash pH 5-5.5
3. Ion concentration important
e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32-
Brewing Process
• Sugar is extracted from grains
• Hops are added and Wort(Liquid mixture) is boiled
• Wort is cooled
• Yeast is added
• Wort ferments to become beer
• Water is a medium for fermentation

Fermentation
• Yeast absorbs oxygen and sugar, and reproduces.
• When oxygen is used up, reproduction stops and
fermentation (anaerobic respiration) begins
• Each glucose produces two molecules of ethyl alcohol and
CO2
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ (2 ATP)
Thanks