Operating

Systems:
Internals Week-3
and Design
Principles Operating System
Overview
 Operating Systems:
Internals and Design Principles
Operating systems are those programs that interface the machine with
the applications programs. The main function of these systems is to
dynamically allocate the shared system resources to the executing
programs. As such, research in this area is clearly concerned with
the management and scheduling of memory, processes, and other
devices. But the interface with adjacent levels continues to shift with
time. Functions that were originally part of the operating system have
migrated to the hardware. On the other side, programmed functions
extraneous to the problems being solved by the application programs
are included in the operating system.

—WHAT CAN BE AUTOMATED?: THE COMPUTER SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERING RESEARCH STUDY,
MIT Press, 1980
 Operating System
 A program that controls the execution of application
programs
 An interface between applications and hardware
Main objectives of an OS:
• Convenience
• Efficiency
• Ability to evolve
 Operating System Services

 Program development
 Program execution
 Access I/O devices
 Controlled access to files
 System access
 Error detection and response
 Accounting
 Key Interfaces
 Instruction set architecture (ISA)
 Application binary interface (ABI)
 Application programming interface (API)
 The Role of an OS
 A computeris a set of resources for the
movement, storage, and processing of
data
 TheOS is responsible for managing these
resources
 Operating System
as Software
 Functions
in the same way as ordinary
computer software
 Program, or suite of programs, executed by
the processor
 Frequentlyrelinquishes control and must
depend on the processor to allow it to regain
control
Operating
System
as
Resource
Manager
Evolution of Operating
Systems
 A major OS will evolve over time for a
number of reasons:
Hardware upgrades

New types of hardware

New services

Fixes
 Evolution of
Operating Systems
 Stages include:

Time
Sharing
Multiprogrammed Systems
Batch Systems
Simple Batch
Systems
Serial
Processing
 Serial Processing
Earliest Computers: Problems:
 Scheduling:
 No operating system  most installations used a
 programmers interacted hardcopy sign-up sheet to
directly with the computer reserve computer time
hardware  time allocations could
 Computers ran from a console run short or long,
with display lights, toggle resulting in wasted
switches, some form of input computer time
device, and a printer  Setup time
 Users have access to the computer  a considerable amount of time
in “series” was spent just on setting up the
program to run
 Simple Batch Systems

 Early computers were very expensive

 important to maximize processor utilization
 Monitor
 user no longer has direct access to processor
 job is submitted to computer operator who batches them
together and places them on an input device
 program branches back to the monitor when finished
 Monitor Point of View
 Monitor controls the sequence of
events
 Resident Monitor is software
always in memory
 Monitor reads in job and gives
control
 Job returns control to monitor
 Processor Point of View
 Processor executes instruction from the memory containing
the monitor
 Executes the instructions in the user program until it
encounters an ending or error condition
 “control is passed to a job” means processor is fetching
and executing instructions in a user program
 “control is returned to the monitor” means that the
processor is fetching and executing instructions from the
monitor program
Job Control Language (JCL)
Special type of programming
language used to provide
instructions to the monitor

what compiler to use

what data to use

Desirable Hardware
Features
Memory protection for monitor

• while the user program is executing, it must not alter the memory area containing
the monitor

Timer

• prevents a job from monopolizing the system

Privileged instructions

• can only be executed by the monitor

Interrupts

• gives OS more flexibility in controlling user programs

 Modes of Operation

User Mode Kernel Mode

• user program executes in user • monitor executes in kernel
mode mode
• certain areas of memory are • privileged instructions may be
protected from user access executed
• certain instructions may not be • protected areas of memory
executed may be accessed
 Simple Batch System
Overhead
 Processor time alternates between execution of user
programs and execution of the monitor
 Sacrifices:
 some main memory is now given over to the monitor
 some processor time is consumed by the monitor
 Despite overhead, the simple batch system improves
utilization of the computer
Multiprogrammed
Batch Systems
 Processor is
often idle
 even with
automatic job
sequencing
 I/O devices
are slow
compared to
processor
 Uniprogramming

 The processor spends a certain amount of time

executing, until it reaches an I/O instruction; it
must then wait until that I/O instruction
concludes before proceeding
 Multiprogramming

 There must be enough memory to hold the OS (resident monitor)

and one user program
 When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can switch to the
other job, which is likely not waiting for I/O
 Multiprogramming

 Multiprogramming
 also known as multitasking
 memory is expanded to hold three, four, or more programs and
switch among all of them
Multiprogramming Example
Utilization Histograms
 Time-Sharing Systems
 Can be used to handle multiple interactive jobs
 Processor time is shared among multiple users
 Multipleusers simultaneously access the system
through terminals, with the OS interleaving the
execution of each user program in a short burst or
quantum of computation
Compatible Time-Sharing
Systems
CTSS Time Slicing
 One of the first time-sharing  System clock generates interrupts at a
operating systems rate of approximately one every 0.2
seconds
 Developed at MIT by a group known  At each interrupt OS regained control
as Project MAC and could assign processor to another
user
 Ran on a computer with 32,000 36-
bit words of main memory, with the  At regular time intervals the current
resident monitor consuming 5000 of user would be preempted and another
user loaded in
that
 Old user programs and data were
 To simplify both the monitor and written out to disk
memory management a program was
always loaded to start at the location
 Old user program code and data were
restored in main memory when that
of the 5000th word
program was next given a turn
CTSS Operation
 Major Advances
 Operating Systems are among the most complex
pieces of software ever developed

Major advances in
development include:
• Processes
• Memory management
• Information protection and security
• Scheduling and resource
management
• System structure
 Process
 Fundamental to the structure of operating systems

A process can be defined as:

a program in execution
an instance of a running program

the entity that can be assigned to, and executed on, a processor

a unit of activity characterized by a single sequential thread of execution, a

current state, and an associated set of system resources
 Development of the Process
 Three major lines of computer system development
created problems in timing and synchronization that
contributed to the development:
multiprogramming batch operation
• processor is switched among the various programs residing in main
memory

time sharing
• be responsive to the individual user but be able to support many users
simultaneously

real-time transaction systems

• a number of users are entering queries or updates against a database
 Causes of Errors
 Improper  Nondeterminate program
synchronization operation
 a program must wait until the  program execution is interleaved by
data are available in a buffer the processor when memory is
shared
 improper design of the
 the order in which programs are
signaling mechanism can result
scheduled may affect their outcome
in loss or duplication
 Deadlocks
 Failed mutual exclusion
 it is possible for two or more
 more than one user or program
programs to be hung up
attempts to make use of a shared
waiting for each other
resource at the same time
 only one routine at at time
 may depend on the chance
allowed to perform an update timing of resource allocation
against the file and release
 Components of
a Process
 A process contains  The execution context is
three components: essential:
 an executable program  it is the internal data by which
the OS is able to supervise and
 the associated data control the process
needed by the program  includes the contents of the
(variables, work space, various process registers
buffers, etc.)  includes information such as
 the execution context (or the priority of the process and
whether the process is waiting
“process state”) of the for the completion of a
program particular I/O event
Process
Management
 The entire state of the
process at any instant is
contained in its context

 New features can be

designed and incorporated
into the OS by expanding
the context to include any
new information needed to
support the feature
 Memory Management
 TheOS has five principal storage management
responsibilities:

automatic support of
process protection and long-term
allocation and modular
isolation access control storage
management programming
 Virtual Memory
 A facilitythat allows programs to address
memory from a logical point of view, without
regard to the amount of main memory physically
available
 Conceived to meet the requirement of having
multiple user jobs reside in main memory
concurrently
Paging
 Allows processes to be comprised of a number of fixed-size
blocks, called pages
 Program references a word by means of a virtual address
 consists of a page number and an offset within the page
 each page may be located anywhere in main memory
 Provides for a dynamic mapping between the virtual
address used in the program and a real (or physical) address
in main memory
Virtual
Memory
Virtual Memory
Addressing
Key Elements of an
Operating System
 Different Architectural
Approaches
 Demands on operating systems require new
ways of organizing the OS

Different approaches and design elements have been tried:

• Microkernel architecture
• Multithreading
• Symmetric multiprocessing
• Distributed operating systems
• Object-oriented design
 Microkernel Architecture
 Assigns only a few essential functions to the
kernel:
interprocess
address basic
communication
spaces scheduling
(IPC)

 The approach:

is well suited to a
simplifies provides
distributed
implementation flexibility
environment
 Multithreading
 Technique in which a process, executing an application, is
divided into threads that can run concurrently

Thread
• dispatchable unit of work
• includes a processor context and its own data area to enable subroutine branching
• executes sequentially and is interruptible

Process
• a collection of one or more threads and associated system resources
• programmer has greater control over the modularity of the application and the
timing of application related events
Virtual Machines and
Virtualization
 Virtualization
 enables a single PC or server to simultaneously run multiple
operating systems or multiple sessions of a single OS
 a machine can host numerous applications, including those
that run on different operating systems, on a single platform
 host operating system can support a number
of virtual machines (VM)
 each has the characteristics of a particular OS
and, in some versions of virtualization, the
characteristics of a particular hardware platform
 Virtual Machine
Architecture
Process perspective:
• the machine on which it executes consists of the virtual memory space assigned to
the process
• the processor registers it may use
• the user-level machine instructions it may execute
• OS system calls it may invoke for I/O
• ABI defines the machine as seen by a process

Application perspective:
• machine characteristics are specified by high-level language capabilities and OS
system library calls
• API defines the machine for an application

OS perspective:
• processes share a file system and other I/O resources
• system allocates real memory and I/O resources to the processes
• ISA provides the interface between the system and machine
 Multicore OS
Considerations
 The design challenge for a
many-core multicore system is
to efficiently harness the hardware parallelism within each
multicore processing power and core processor, known as
intelligently manage the instruction level parallelism

substantial on-chip resources

efficiently potential for multiprogramming
and multithreaded execution
 Potential for parallelism exists within each processor
at three levels:
potential for a single application
to execute in concurrent
processes or threads across
multiple cores
Virtual Machine Approach
 Allows one or more cores to be dedicated to a
particular process and then leave the processor
alone to devote its efforts to that process
 Multicore OS could then act as a hypervisor that
makes a high-level decision to allocate cores to
applications but does little in the way of resource
allocation beyond that
Microsoft Windows Overview
 MS-DOS 1.0 released in 1981  Windows 2000
 4000 lines of assembly language source  included services and functions to
code
support distributed processing
 ran in 8 Kbytes of memory
 Active Directory
 used Intel 8086 microprocessor
 plug-and-play and power-
 Windows 3.0 shipped in 1990 management facilities
 16-bit
 GUI interface  Windows XP released in 2001
 implemented as a layer on top of MS-  goal was to replace the versions of
DOS Windows based on MS-DOS with
an OS based on NT
 Windows 95
 32-bit version  Windows Vista shipped in 2007
 led to the development of Windows 98  Windows Server released in 2008
and Windows Me
 Windows 7 shipped in 2009, as well
 Windows NT (3.1) released in 1993
as Windows Server 2008 R2
 32-bit OS with the ability to support
older DOS and Windows applications  Windows Azure
as well as provide OS/2 support
 targets cloud computing
 User-Mode Processes
 Four basic types are supported by Windows:
Special System • user-mode services needed to manage the system
Processes
• the printer spooler, event logger, and user-mode components that
Service Processes cooperate with device drivers, and various network services

Environment • provide different OS personalities (environments)

Subsystems
• executables (EXEs) and DLLs that provide the functionality users run
User Applications to make use of the system
 Client/Server Model
 Windows OS services,  Advantages:
environmental  it simplifies the Executive
subsystems, and  it improves reliability
applications are all
structured using the
 it provides a uniform
means for applications to
client/server model
communicate with
 Common in distributed services via RPCs without
systems, but can be used restricting flexibility
internal to a single system  it provides a suitable base
for distributed computing
 Processes communicate
via RPC
 Summary
 Operating system objectives and  Process
functions:
 convenience, efficiency, ability to
 Memory management
evolve  real address, virtual address
 user/computer interface
 Scheduling and resource management
 resource manager
 Multithreading
 Evolution:
 Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
 serial processing, simple batch  distributed OS
systems, multiprogrammed batch
systems, time sharing systems
 object oriented design

 Microsoft Windows/Windows 7  Virtual machines

 UNIX/Linux systems  virtualization

End